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Pochette violins arose from the 17^th and 18^th centuries when dancing masters used them as a teaching aid. It was too hard to carry a violin around everywhere teachers went, so they used a Pochette violin. This would fit into a large jacket pocket when it is not in use. Although Pochette violins do not always have great tonal qualities, they were more often used because of their practicality.

They were often highly decorated. A 1647 Jacques Du Mensil Pochette violin is located in the Victoria and Albert Museum with a body made from ebony and with ebony fittings.

As the Pochette violins are smaller, they are tuned higher than normal everyday violins. It is common for a Pochette violin to be tuned a fourth above a violin, but some were tuned an octave higher.

Pochette violins have 3 or 4 strings and the body of the instrument is quite small. The finger board is relatively long to accommodate the player's hand. Such an instrument is required in Monteverdi's 1607 Orfeo.

The Pochette violin is also known by the following names.

• Pochette Fiddle

• Pocket Violin

• Kit Violin

• Tanzmeistergeige (German)

Description of the Psaltery
Tuning Instructions for the Psaltery

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Description of the Psaltery

The psaltery is in the family of chordophones. Vibrating strings by running a bow across them makes their sound. The psaltery’s strings run the entire length of the instrument and put it in the same classification as the zither. The psaltery was developed in the Middle East, and was a very important instrument during the Medieval Period.

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Tuning Instructions for the Psaltery

Always start with the shortest string and work to the longest string. This will ensure that you stay on the correct octave. You may replace the strings with #10 guitar strings. To tune, turn the pin in a clockwise direction while applying moderate pressure to maintain the friction holding the pin in place. The tuning pins are not threaded; rather they are tapered and held in place by friction. Pushing into the instrument as you tune the pins will seat them and make them hold firmly. You may need to re-tune frequently until your instrument is in condition. As you look at the soundboard the sharp and flat notes are to the left and the natural notes are to the right. The notes on the right side begin with C and end at the top with F. There are 2 ½ octaves on our psaltery.

Remember that the bow must be rosined to sound.

The rebec (sometimes rebeck and originally various other spellings) is a bowed string musical instrument. In its most common form, it has three strings and is played on the arm or under the chin, like a violin. It was particularly popular in the 15th and 16th centuries.

The instrument is European, but probably developed from the Arabic instrument, the rabab. The rebec was first referred to by name around the beginning of the 14th century, although instruments very similar to it had been played since around the 10th century.

The rebec comes in a variety of slightly different forms, but is typically pear-shaped, with no clear division between the body and neck of the instrument, both being carved from the same single piece of wood. The body of the instrument is bowl-shaped, although the degree to which it is curved or flat can vary from instrument to instrument.

The rebec originally came in two basic forms: a wider instrument played under the chin; and a relatively narrower instrument which was rested on the player's thigh and played with the bow in an underhand position, like the viol. The under-the-chin technique had become predominant by the 15th century or so, but the instrument was narrower than before, and the bowl of the body less pronounced.

The number of strings on the rebec varies from one to five, although three is the most common number. The strings are often tuned in fifths, although this tuning is by no means universal. The instrument was originally in the treble range, like the violin, but later larger versions were developed, such that by the 16th century composers were able to write pieces for consorts of rebecs, just as they did for consorts of viols. However, the viol came to replace the rebec, and the instrument was little used beyond the renaissance period.

The instrument did remain in use by dance masters until the 18th century, however, often being used for the same purpose as the kit, a small pocket sized violin (also called a pochette or dancing masters violin). The rebec also continued to be used in folk music, especially in eastern Europe.

The viola d'amore is a stringed musical instrument sharing some characteristics with the viol family. Like viols, it has a flat back and intricately carved head at the top of the peg box, but it is unfretted, and played much like a violin, being held horizontally under the chin. It is about the same size as the modern viola.

The viola d'amore usually has fourteen strings. Seven of them are playing strings, which are sounded by drawing a bow across them, just as with a violin. The other seven are sympathetic strings which are not played directly but vibrate in sympathy with the notes played. A common variation is six playing strings, and instruments exist with as many as fourteen sympathetic strings alone. Despite the fact that the sympathetic strings are now thought of as the most characteristic element of the instrument, it is thought that some early examples may have lacked them.

There is no standard tuning scheme for the strings as there are with modern string instruments. Players will frequently need to change the tuning from one piece to another. However, the range of the instrument is usually from the D below middle C to the D two octaves above it.

Largely thanks to the sympathetic strings, the viola d'amore has a particularly sweet and warm sound. Leopold Mozart, writing in his Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, said that the instrument sounded "especially charming in the stillness of the evening."

The viol da gamba (alternatively viola da gamba or just viol) family of musical instruments is related to the vihuela, rebec, etc.

The instrument has its roots in the guitar; it is thought that guitarists began playing their instruments with a bow in the 15th century. This eventually led to the evolution of an entirely new instrument, which had many of the features of the guitar (flat back, frets), but was bowed rather than plucked. This new instrument was at first held in the same way as a guitar, but later began to be held upright, either resting on the lap or held between the legs like a cello, giving it the name viola da gamba, Italian for "viol of the leg."

Some texts have stated that the gamba was a forerunner to the violin family, but there is no historical evidence for this at all. The violin had entirely different origins, and during the Renaissance it was thought to be a very inferior instrument to the viol.

The viol is fretted, like a guitar (although with moveable, tied-on frets made of gut), and usually has six strings, though examples with only five strings do exist. A low seventh string (A'') was added in France by Sainte Colombe, who taught many of the French gamba virtuosi of the 18th century. Unlike members of the violin family, which are tuned in fifths, the gamba is tuned in fourths and one third in the middle, rather like a lute or guitar. The bow is held underhand and is convex rather than concave like a modern violin bow.

The gamba (as it is often foreshortened) comes in 4 sizes: treble, tenor, bass, and double bass (also known as a violone). The treble is about the size of a violin (but with a deeper body); the bass is a bit smaller than a cello. A closely related instrument is the viola d'amore.

The standard tuning of the viol is in 4ths, with a 3rd in the middle (like the standard lute tuning). For treble and bass the notes would be (from the highest) d',a,e,c,G,D and for the tenor g,d,A,F,C,G'. The treble is one octave higher than the bass. Other tunings were employed, particularly in the solo lyra viol style of playing, which also made use of many techniques such as chords and pizzicato (i.e. plucking rather than bowing the strings), which were not generally used in consort playing. An unusual style of pizzicato was known as a thump. Lyra viol music was also written in tablature, and there is a vast repertoire of this music, some by well-known composers, but a lot of it anonymous.

The instrument was common among amateurs, and many homes would have a so-called chest of viols which would contain one or more instruments of each size. Gamba ensembles, called consorts, were common in the 16th and 17th centuries, when they performed vocal music (consort songs or verse anthems) as well as that written specifically for instruments. Music for consorts was very popular in England in Elizabethan times, with composers such as William Byrd, John Dowland and during the reign of King Charles I by composers such as John Jenkins and William Lawes. The last music for viol consorts before their modern revival was probably written in the 1680s by Henry Purcell.

The bass viola da gamba continued to be used (as a solo instrument and also to accompany the harpsichord in basso continuo) into the 18th century, by which time it had acquired associations of courtliness and antiquity; However, the instrument fell out of use as concert halls grew larger, and the louder and somewhat more strident tone of the violin family became more popular. In the last one hundred years or so, the viola da gamba has been revived by early music enthusiasts.

Alpenhorn or alphorn, a wind instrument, consisting ofa natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped mouthpiece, used by mountaineers in Switzerland and elsewhere.

The tube is made of thin strips of birchwood soaked in water until they have become quite pliable; they are then wound into a tube of conical form from 4 to 8 ft. long, and neatly covered with bark. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete.

The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwytz, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube.

The well-known Ranz des Paches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn, which has been immortalized by Beethoven in the finale of the Pastoral Symphony, where the music is generally rendered by a cor anglais. Rossini has introduced the melody into his opera William Tell. Wagner, in the third act of Tristan and Isolde, was not entirely satisfied with the tone quality of the cor anglais for representing the natural pipe of the peasant. Having in his mind the timbre of the alpenhorn, he had a wooden horn made for him with one valve only and a small pear-shaped bell, which is used at Bayreuth.

The Swiss alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzerni trummet in Syntagma Musicum (Wittenberg, 1615-1619).

Trombones of today

The trombone is unique in that it was the only brass instrument capable of playing chromatically, that is, by half-steps in a scale, until valves were invented in the 1830's.

First of all, one needs to recognize the many varieties of the modern trombone.
 
Only 21 inches in length, the Soprano Trombone--or slide trumpet--is not used regularly for orchestral or band music.  Though having the appearance of a trombone, this instrument is usually played by a trumpet player as the mouthpiece and playing range is the same as a trumpet, pitched in Bb, an octave above the tenor trombone.

There are trombones pitched even higher than the soprano--the sopranino, and the highest, the piccolo--but these are rarely seen and are only used in large trombone choirs.

Below are descriptions of modern trombones.  There will be slight variations among different manufacturers and some will not offer as many bore (tubing diameter) size options, but most will follow these basic designs:

Alto Trombone
Pitched a perfect fourth higher, in Eb, and smaller than the tenor trombone, it has a small bore and is used often in church brass music and in brass ensembles to provide the top voice.

Tenor Trombone (small bore)
This is the most common type of trombone used today.  It is, as the remaining trombones are, pitched in Bb.  The bore size is anywhere from  .468" - .490".  Small bore horns have the brightest sound and are often preferred in jazz groups to cut through when soloing.

Medium bore Tenor Trombone
The bore size is typically .500" - .509".   As bore size increases, the timbre of the horn becomes "rounder or darker", less brilliant.  This is a sound sought after in orchestral work.

Medium-large bore Tenor Trombone (with "traditional wrap" F attachment)
Bore size typically .525"
The F attachment adds a wrap of tubing activated by a trigger and rotor valve which lowers the fundamental pitch from Bb to F.  This allows the player to reach lower notes than would otherwise be possible.  Horns of this size and larger are available in "traditional" or "open" wraps or without the F attachment.

Large Bore Tenor (with "open wrap" F attachment)
Bore size typically .547"
The "open wrap" eliminates the tight turns of the traditional wrap, improving airflow through the F tubing, and is preferred by many professionals.

Bass Trombone
The largest bore measuring at typically .562" and also the largest bell (10-10.5")
Although there are single-rotor bass trombones, many now include a second valve with can work independently of the first--or may be "dependent" and used in combination with the first.  The extra valve allows more pitch changing and flexibility to the professional player.

Valve Trombone
This model is typical of most valve trombones you will find today.  They usually have a small to medium bore.  The valve fingering is the same as a trumpet.  Many are sold with a conventional slide section as well for the player who wants both options.  Not used in orchestras or most bands, this style is popular in some jazz ensembles and for trumpet and euphonium players who want to "double" on trombone.

 

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History of the Trombone

The name "trombone" comes from the Italian word tromba for trumpet.  Change the suffix "a" to the Italian suffix "one", meaning "big", and you get trombone meaning "big trumpet".  The early English word for this horn was sackbut, probably derived from French (saquebute) or Spanish (sacabuche) words meaning literally "pull-push".

The trombone is related to the trumpet due to the similar cylindrical bore of its tubing.  The method of sound production in all horns is the same: the player blows air through their vibrating lips into a cupped mouthpiece setting a column of air vibrating throughout the length of a tube with a flared open end.

Simple trumpets made from animal horns, shells, and hollow bones date back to ancient times.  Written documentation of trumpets dates back before 3000 B.C. in Mesopotamia.  Trumpets were found in the Tutankamen's tomb.  The Greeks and Romans also had trumpets.

By the early 15th century, innovators found that they could take a straight trumpet and by cutting it in two and fashioning a telescoping horn, they could shorten or lengthen the horn and thus change its fundamental pitch.  The early slide trumpet was born.  This simply allowed the instrument to play a few notes lower or higher than it otherwise would and was not capable of playing scales as we know them.  In essence, it produced a horn that could play in a couple of different keys.

Further innovation in the mid-15th century resulted in the now-familiar curved parallel-tube slide which, because it was doubled back, was capable of filling in notes that were not playable on the straight slide trumpet. 

In the 15th century, we also find the first music texts with precise instrumental descriptions (other than for the organ).  Among them, a brilliant and stirring 'tuba gallicalis', a fanfare on a broken chord of C Major for three sackbuts.

The earliest known illustration of a trombone appears in the late 15th century painting "The Assumption of Virgin" by Filippino Lippi in the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome.  A monochrome partial detail appears at left. 

Towards the end of the 15th century, the trombone was fully developed and by the 16th century it already consisted of an entire family made up of descant, alto, tenor and bass trombones. 

The descant trombones were eventually replaced by cornetts and later trumpets.  In the end, it has been the tenor trombone which has become most prevalent. 

 During the nineteenth century, brass instrument design and fabrication was of such widespread interest that the annual trade expositions in most countries featured an instrument competition.

Prizes and ratings by judges were so cherished by the manufacturers that they imprinted the list of awards to a given model on the bell along with the name, address, and company hallmark

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Timeline of the Trombone

Renaissance

Ca. 1450.  The trombone developed from the slide trumpet.  Both the exact date and the identity of the originator of the moveable slide are unknown.  The connected double tubes of the slide represented a significant advance over the awkward slide trumpet and reduced the distances between notes, greatly improving technique.  The smaller slide movements also rendered tenor-range instruments practicable.  These were known as the saque-boute or trompone.

Ca. 1540.  The earliest surviving instruments date from the mid-16th century.  Three types were used in this period: an "ordinary" sackbut in Bb (gemeine-posaune), and Eb alto (mittel-posaune), and a bass (grosse-posaune) also known as quart- or quint-posaune, indicating the intervallic distance from the Bb gemeine-posaune.  Trombones in other keys were sometimes made as well.

17th Century

Ca. 1600.  The same pattern continued with the addition of a contrabass instrument (octav-posaune), although it is unclear to what extent it was actually used.  Sackbuts were regularly used in all types of ensemble, from large court bands to small mixed consorts where it could blend with the softest instruments.  A "vocal" style was cultivated that was free of any influence from the trumpet.  The capacity to blend with voices caused the sackbut to be widely used in church music.  It was also common in municipal bands along with cornett and shawms, or in a consort of 2 cornetts and 3 sackbuts.  Venetian composers Giovanni Gabrieli and Massaino wrote for the instrument regularly, occasionally calling for exceptionally large forces.

Ca. 1685.  A small trombone pitched an octave above the tenor made its appearance in central Europe and was used mostly for playing chorale melodies in trombone ensembles.

18th Century

Composers increase their use of the trombone in a soloistic role:

Ca. 1755.  Concerto by Georg Wagenseil (alto trombone)

Ca. 1762.  Concerto by Leopold Mozart (alto trombone)

1763.  Larghetto by Michael Hayden (alto trombone)

1764.  Divertimento in D by Michael Hayden (alto trombone)

1769.  Concerto by Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (alto trombone)

Ca. 1780.  The trombone began to be used in opera to lend dramatic effect to certain scenes, as in Mozart's Don Giovanni and Magic Flute.

19th Century

Ca. 1800-1850.  During the early 19th century, composers increasingly called for three trombones in the orchestra.  Parts were included in Beethoven's 5th and 9th symphonies.  The normal trio of Eb alto, Bb tenor, and F bass began to give way as alto parts were often played on the tenor.  A large-bore trombone in Bb was occasionally substituted for the bass in F.  The also trombone was retained (as it is today in central Europe) for parts requiring a high tessitura and light balances.

Ca. 1828.  The new valve trombone was introduced, and, while it received acceptance in bands, it was little used in orchestras.

1839.  C.F.Sattler of Leipzig introduced the first Bb-F trombone.  The change to the F attachment was (as it is today) made by a rotary valve.

Ca. 1850.  From the mid-19th century, German trombones became larger in bore and bell and took on their traditional wide-bow construction.  French trombones of the Courtois type retained a smaller bore and bell taper.  Large bass trombones in F or Bb/F became the rule in German sections.  A smaller bass trombone in G was used in brass bands and orchestras in England for almost a century.

1876.  A contrabass trombone in BBb with a double-tubed slide was constructed for Wagner's Ring.

Ca. 1890-1920.  During these years, small-bore Courtois-type trombones were popular in France, England, and in bands in the U.S.  Players in American symphony orchestras preferred large-bore German instruments and these influenced the development of the modern American symphonic trombone (which combines the best features of French and German instruments).

20th Century

Ca. 1939.  The trombone gained widespread popularity through the influence of bandleaders such as Tommy Dorsey and Glenn Miller and its used in jazz.  Tommy Dorsey, in particular, left his mark on all trombonists for his remarkable control and smooth legato.

Ca. 1950.  American-type orchestral trombones became standardized throughout the world, in some cases (as in England) displacing traditional small-bore instruments, in Germany and Austria, but German trombones continued their independent line of development.

Ca. 1952.  Several American bass trombonists were frustrated by the limitations of the Bb-F instrument in producing good notes immediately above the pedal range.  They experimented with an additional length of tubing connected to the F attachment by a second valve that lowered the pitch to E.  This was later altered to Eb or D, and the dependent double-trigger bass trombone soon became standardized.

Ca. 1965  Hans Kunitz invented the in-line independent double-valve large bass-contrabass trombone, tuned F/C-D-Bb.

Ca. 1970.  Dr. B.P. Leonard independently invented the in-line design.  From Leonard's patented design, tuned Bb/G-E-D.  Other versions, tuned Bb/F-G-Eb or Bb/F-Gb-D, were developed and produced commercially as bass trombones.

Present.  Large-bore tenors with and without F attachment and in-line double-rotor bass trombones are used in orchestras and bands today.  While small-bore trombones are rare, medium and medium-large bores are widely used by students and in the jazz and recording fields.  Alto trombones are used for certain repertoire (particularly in Germany).  Modern versions of traditional German trombones are preferred in Central Europe.  The valve trombone is now only found in jazz, where it is an important solo instrument.  Parts for the contrabass trombone are usually played on the bass trombone, due to the increased capability of the in-line double-valve instrument but there is increased use of the modern forms of the contrabass instrument.

The bugle is one of the simplest brass instruments; it is essentially a small horn with no valves. All pitch control is done by varying the player's embouchure, since the bugle has no other mechanism for controlling pitch. Consequently, the bugle is limited to notes within the harmonic series.

The bugle is used mainly in the military and in drum and bugle corps, where the bugle has evolved away from its military origins, growing valves. Bugles in drum and bugle corps are typically pitched in G.

The trumpet is a brass instrument. It is the highest in register, above the tuba, euphonium, trombone, sousaphone, and french horn. A person who plays the trumpet is sometimes called a trumpeter but more often a trumpet player.

The trumpet is made of brass bent into a rough spiral. Although the bore of the trumpet is said to be mostly cylindrical, it is formed from a complex series of tapers, the smallest being at the mouthpiece receiver, and the largest being at the throat of the bell, before the flare for the bell begins. (Careful design of these tapers is critical to the intonation of the instrument.) Sound is produced by blowing air through the lips so as to produce a "buzzing" effect, which creates a standing wave of vibrating air in the trumpet. The trumpet player can select the pitch from a range of overtones or harmonics by changing the air speed and lip tension. Valves change the length of the tubing, lowering the pitch of the instrument. Three valves make the trumpet fully chromatic, allowing the player to play in all keys.

The mouthpiece provides a comfortable receiver to allow the lips to play without touching the sharp and restricting edge of the trumpet's tube itself. The sound is projected outward by the bell.

The trumpet is closely related to the cornet and flugelhorn, both of which are more conical in the shape of the bore rather than cylindrical, and have more mellow tones, but are in the same pitch range. The piccolo trumpets play about one octave higher than the regular trumpets. There are also rotary-valve, or German, trumpets, as well as bass, alto and Baroque trumpets. The modern trumpet evolved from earlier non-valved instruments, such as the Baroque trumpet now used by original instruments ensembles, the didjeridu, and the Scandinavian lur.

The trumpet is (usually) a transposing instrument, and comes in many keys. The most common is the B-Flat trumpet, followed by the (non-transposing) C, E-Flat, D, and A trumpets. In many countries, including the United States and much of Europe, the (non-transposing) C trumpet is nowadays the standard orchestral instrument. The B-Flat trumpet's range extends from the written F# (sounding E) immediately below middle C up to about two and a half octaves higher: the usually accepted "top" note is a written C (sounding Bb) though even higher notes are attainable and extremely high notes may be heard played by jazz and other specialist trumpeters.

The piccolo trumpet is built usually in either B-Flat or A, with G, F and even high C piccolos possible but much less common: its tone is metallic and clean. Many piccolos have four valves instead of the usual three: the fourth valve takes the instrument down in pitch, usually but not always by a fourth, to allow the playing of lower notes which are otherwise unobtainable on a three-valve instrument. The bass trumpet is usually played by a trombone player, being at that pitch.

The first trumpets reputedly came from Egypt, and were primarily used for military purposes, like the bugle as we still know it, with different tunes corresponding to different instructions. In medieval times, trumpet playing was a guarded craft, its instruction occurring only within highly selective guilds. The trumpet players were often among the most heavily guarded members of a troop, as they were relied upon to relay instructions to other sections of the army. Eventually the trumpet's value for musical production was seen, particularly after the addition of valves, and its use and instruction became much more widespread.

Today, the trumpet is used in nearly all forms of music, including classical, jazz, blues, pop, ska, and funk. Among the great trumpet players (or "trumpeters") are Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis, Doc Severinsen, Jon Faddis, Maynard Ferguson, Phillip Smith and Wynton Marsalis.

Trumpets in the Bible

According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, trumpets in the Bible were of a great variety of forms, and were made of various materials. Some were made of silver (Num. 10:2), and were used only by the priests in announcing the approach of festivals and in giving signals of war. Some were also made of rams' horns (Josh. 6:8). They were blown at special festivals, and to herald the arrival of special seasons (Lev. 23:24; 25:9; 1 Chr. 15:24; 2 Chr. 29:27; Ps. 81:3; 98:6). This type of trumpet, the shofar is still blown today in Jewish services on Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year).

"Trumpets" are among the symbols used in the Book of Revelation (Rev. 1:10; 8:2).

The tuba is the largest of the low-brass instruments and is one of the most recent additions to the modern symphony orchestra, first appearing in the mid 19th century where it largely replaced the ophicleide. There is usually only one tuba in an orchestra, and is used as the bass of the brass section, though its versatility means that it can be used to reinforce the strings and woodwind, or increasingly as a solo instrument.

Tubas are also used in wind and concert bands and in brass bands, although in the latter instance they are referred to as Eb and Bb basses, there being 2 of each.

In the hands of a skilled player, it has a wide range (some 4½ octaves) and can be remarkably agile.

Tubas are found in various pitches, most commonly in F, Eb, C, or Bb. They can have rotary or piston valves, numbering up to 6, although 4 is by far the most common number. Most piston valved tubas have a compensating system to allow accurate tuning when using several valves in combination to play low notes.

Compared to the other brass instruments commonly found in the orchestra, the typical range of the french horn is set an octave higher in its harmonic series, facilitated by its small, deep mouthpiece, giving it its characteristic "mellow" tone.

History

The original French Horns were much simpler than current horns, which consist of complicated tubing and a set of 3 to 5 valves (depending on the type of horn). These early horns were simply brass tubing wound a few times and flared into a larger opening at the end (called the bell of the horn). They evolved from the early hunting horns and, as such, were meant to be played while riding on a horse. The hornist would grip the horn on the piping near the mouthpiece and rest the body of the horn across his arm so that only one hand was needed to play and the other could be free to guide his steed. The only way to change the pitch was to use the natural harmonics of that particular length of tubing by changing the speed at which the lips vibrated against the mouthpiece.

Later, horns became interesting to composers, and were used to invoke an out-of-doors feeling and the idea of the chase. Even in the time of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, however, the horn player (now a part of the early orchestra) still had a much simpler version of the horn; he carried with him a set of crooks, which were curved pieces of tube of different length which could be used to change the length of the horn by removing part of the tubing and inserting a different length piece. The player now held the horn with both hands, holding the tubing near the mouthpiece with one, and putting the other into the bell, which was either rested upon the right knee of the player or the entire horn was lifted into the air. Now the pitch played could be changed in several ways. First the player could change the harmonic series which the instrument as a whole had by removing and inserting different sized crooks into the instrument, changing the length of the horn itself. Less globally, given a particular crook, the vibration of the lips could be varied in speed, thus moving to a different pitch on the given harmonic series. Finally, now that the player had his hand in the bell, the hand became an extension on the length of the horn, and by closing and opening the space available for air to leave the bell, he could bend the pitch to interpolate between the elements of a harmonic series. This interpolation finally made the horn a true melodic instrument, not simply limited to a harmonic series, and some of the great composers started to write concerti for this new instrument. The Mozart Horn Concerti, for example, were written for this type of horn, called the natural horn in the modern literature.

Around 1815, the horn took on new form, as valves were introduced, which allowed the player to switch between crooks without the effort of manually removing one from the horn and inserting a new one. At this same time, the standard horn came to be the horn on the F harmonic series, and there were then three valves added to it. Using these three valves, the player could play all the notes reachable in the horn's range.

Types of horns

The single F horn, despite this improvement, had a rather irksome flaw. As the player played higher and higher notes, the distinctions a player had to make with his or her embouchure from note to note became increasingly precise. An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch -- usually B-flat. The relative merits of F versus B-flat were a hotbed of debate between horn players of the late nineteenth century, until the German horn maker Kruspe produced a prototype of the "double horn" in 1897.

The double horn combines two instruments into one frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B-flat. By using a fourth valve operated by the thumb, the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B-flat horn (commonly called "sides"). In the words of Reginald Morley-Pegge, the invention of the double horn "revolutionized horn playing technique almost as much as did the invention of the valve." [Morley-Pegge, "Orchestral," 195]

Specialized horns

While most modern instruments are of the F/B-flat double horn variety, various special-purpose instruments are available (usually at a very high price).

The most common is the descant horn, which is a single horn pitched in F alto, one octave higher than the traditional F horn. The descant is used largely for extended playing in the high register, such as in Bach's Brandenburg Concerti. Single horns in F or B-flat still see use, notably in operatic settings. Their lighter weight renders them much more suitable for the extended and strenuous playing required of Wagnerian operas.

The triple horn is the result of merging an F/B-flat double horn with an F-alto descant, adding a fifth valve to an already complex instrument. While the horn is suitable for work in nearly every register of horn literature, the added weight makes it tiresome to play, and for this reason it is not widely used.

The mellophone is, in appearance, very different from any of the above types of horn, but it is nevertheless used in place of the horn in marching bands.

The cornet is a standard concert band instrument; most bands have at least two cornets, as they are often scored in preference to trumpets. The trumpet, however, is used more often than the cornet in orchestral, small ensemble, and solo performance. The cornet is the main high voice of the Brass band in the UK and other countries which have British-style brass bands.

Cornets and trumpets made in a given key (usually the key of B-flat, written B♭ or Bb) play at the same pitch, and the technique for playing the instruments is very similar. However, cornets and trumpets are not entirely interchangeable because the timbre (or tone quality) of their sound differs. Also available, but usually seen only in the brass band, is an Eb soprano model (often shortened to just "sop"), pitched a fourth above the standard Bb. This instrument, with usually just one in a band, adds an extreme high register to the brass band sound and can be most effective in cutting through even the biggest climax.

Unlike the trumpet, most of the tubing of which has a cylindrical bore, the tubing of the cornet has a mostly conical bore, starting very narrow at the mouthpiece and gradually widening towards the bell. The conical bore of the cornet is primarily responsible for its characteristic warm, mellow tone, which can be distinguished from the more penetrating sound of the trumpet. The conical bore of the cornet also makes it more agile than the trumpet when playing fast passages. The cornet is often preferred for young beginners as it is easier to hold, with its centre of gravity much closer to the player.

Like the trumpet and all other modern brasswind instruments, the cornet makes a sound when the player vibrates ("buzzes") his lips in the mouthpiece, creating a vibrating column of air in the tubing of the cornet that generates a musical sound. When the column of air is lengthened, the pitch of the note is lowered.

From the basic length tube of the cornet the player can produce a series of notes, like those played by the bugle, which has gaps in so that true melodic playing is impossible except in the extreme high register. So, to change the length of the vibrating column and provide the cornet with the ability to play chromatic scales, the cornet is equipped with three (or very rarely, four) valves. The action of each valve is to add a length of tubing (and thus vibrating air column) between mouthpiece and bell. As the player presses the valves, they lower the pitch of the cornet and can thus play complete chromatic scales.

The cornet in the illustration is a short model traditional cornet, also known as a "Shepherd's crook" shaped model. There also exists a long-model cornet which looks about half-way between the short instrument and a trumpet. This instrument is frowned upon by cornet traditionalists and it is not clear what its intended role is.

A troop of cavalry may also be called a cornet, so called from its being accompanied by a cornet player. Until 1871, when the office was abolished, cornet was the lowest grade of commissioned officer in a British cavalry troop, who carried the standard, also known as a cornet.

The flugelhorn (also spelled fluegelhorn) is a brass instrument resembling a cornet but with a wider bore. It is the soprano member of the saxhorn (also known as tuba) family developed by Adolphe Sax (who also developed the saxophone) and is built in the same Bb pitch as many trumpets and cornets. It usually has three valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments. It can thus be played without too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players, though some adaptation may be needed to their playing style.

The tone is fatter and usually regarded as more "mellow" and "dark" than that of the trumpet or cornet. It has a similar level of agility to the cornet but is more difficult to control in the high register where in general it "slots" or locks on to notes less easily. It is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as both trumpet and cornet can be, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. Its main areas of use are in jazz and in the brass band, though it does get occasional use in orchestral writing.

Some modern flugels are built with a fourth valve which takes them down in pitch an extra fourth, adding a useful area of low range which when coupled with the dark sound gives an interesting extension to the instrument's abilities.

The Didgeridoo is one of the worlds oldest wind instruments and has been dated back to 20,000 B.C. It is an important part of the aboriginal heritage with its use ranging from musical and healing to ceremonial heritage.

A Didgeridoo is played by blowing air into the mouthpiece while at the same time, creating a vibration with the lips. This sound is usually accompanied by soft tapping on the side of the Didgeridoo, and the sound of 'clapping' 2 sticks together.

As the Didgeridoo existed before the rise of western musical notation, there is no standard keys for Didgeridoos. The width and length of the Didgeridoo determines the key that the instrument will be in and there is quite a variation of lengths. Music stores commonly stock Didgeridoos with a length of 1 metre to 1.2 metres.

According to one aboriginal legend, the very first man wanted to make the sky happy. His efforts led him to put a hollow branch to his mouth and play. The force of his breath expelled all the termites that lived in the hollow branch, out the open end. These termites became the stars.

Making a Didgeridoo

Although many of todays cheaper Didgeridoo are made out of plastic, authentic Didgeridoos are made from eucalyptus branches. Even though there are many eucalyptus species, only a few can be used to make a Didgeridoo. The species of eucalyptus that are used, grow with a fleshy centre. When a small hole is made in the outer bark of a branch, termites are able to move in. After about a year, the branch is hollowed out, leaving the dense outer layer of the eucalyptus intact. Once this hollowed branch is cut, it is left to season for a few months.

After it has been 'seasoned', the bark is stripped, the inside is cleaned and any holes are filled. A beeswax mouthpiece is added, the Didgeridoo is ready to play.

As Didgeridoos are becoming more popular around the world, many Didgeridoo makers just cut all the branches and saplings in an area to find enough hollow ones. This is leaving a large impact on Australian forests. It is for this reason that Didgeridoos are made from a number of natural and synthetic materials.

Playing the Didgeridoo

A Didgeridoo is played by blowing air into the mouthpiece while at the same time, creating a vibration with the lips.

1. Practice first by making the lowest pitch buzzing noise you can.

2. Stick out your bottom lip just a little beyond your upper lip.

3. Keeping your lips loose, make the buzzing noise as if you are giving someone a 'raspberry'. Your loose lips will help them vibrate and create the buzzing sound.

4. Now try to make this low buzzing sound in the Didgeridoo.

The long hollow chamber in the Didgeridoo amplifies the sound. With practice you should be able to create a drone sound. It is important to keep your lips relaxed and loose. Trying too hard often causes beginners to tighten their lips.

Once the drone has been mastered, the pitch of the drone can be changed by slightly tightening your lips. If you over tighten you lips, the sound will stop. Rhythm can be added to the drone by varying when you take each breath.

The next step would be to learn to circular breath.

The euphonium is the tenor member of the tuba family. It is a valved brass instrument whose bore constantly increases in size from the valve section to the bell - this is called "conical bore", as distinguished from "cylindrical bore" instruments which maintain a constant tubing diameter for a greater portion of the instrument's total length. The euphonium plays in the same range of pitches as the trombone, but its cylindrical bore gives it a more mellow, "rounder" sound compared to the "brassier" sound of a trombone.

Invented by Adolphe Sax, the euphonium is thus a saxhorn.

Other instruments essentially similar to the euphonium include the American-style baritone horn, the British baritone (which is more cylindrical and trombone-like than the American baritone), and the Germany baryton and tenorhorn. All trace their descent to the serpent. A unique American creation was the double-belled euphonium, which featured a second, smaller bell and an extra valve allowing the player to use that bell instead of the main bell. The second bell had a more trombone-like sound.

The euphonium is not often used by symphony orchestras,(its most notable use being its part in Holst's Planets Suite) so its main venues are various wind bands, such as school bands, brass bands, marching bands, and military bands, where it is frequently featured as a solo instrument. The name "euphonium" comes from the Greek for "beautiful-sounding". As the musician Billy Joel wrote, "It's either sadness or euphonium."

Like the horn, the mellophone has three valves. However, the valves are pressed with the right hand for mellophone, instead of the left for a concert horn. Also, although some of the mellophone fingerings are the same as those of the concert horn, they generally resemble trumpet fingerings more than horn fingerings. Mellophones are typically pitched in the key of F, like concert horns.

The main reason that the mellophone is used in place of the concert horn for marching is the weight of the concert horn, which makes it all but impossible to march with. The mellophone is also a bell-front instrument, so that the sound goes in the direction that the player is facing. This is especially important in drum corps-style marching, in which the audience is typically standing or sitting on only one side of the band. The direction of the bell, as well as the much-reduced amount of tubing (as compared to a concert horn) makes the mellophone look like a large trumpet. In fact, most mellophones use trumpet-style parabolic ("cup") mouthpieces rather than the smaller, lighter, conical ("funnel") mouthpieces used on concert horns.

Naming issues

Although the terms mellophone and marching French horn are often used interchangeably, these are actually two different instruments. The marching French horn is typically larger than the mellophone, plays in the key of B flat, and uses french horn fingerings and mouthpieces.

The saxhorn family of valved brass instruments was named after Adolphe Sax, who did much to bring it to its present day form. His claim to have invented the instrument was hotly contested by other brass instrument makers during his lifetime.

The saxhorn is a brass instrument with a characteristic tapered bore and deep cup-shaped mouthpiece. The sound blends elements of other brass families, such as trumpets and horns. The modern flugelhorn, tenor horn (alto horn in the US), euphonium, and tuba are current developments of this family, although some argue that theseform part of a separate tuba family.

Developed during the mid to late 1830s, the saxhorn family was patented in Paris in 1845. Like the saxophone group they were designed for band use and pitched alternately in Bb and Eb. During the mid-1850s Sax continued to experiment with the saxhorn's valve pattern; eventually the family consisted of more than ten models of different sizes.

Saxhorns were popularized by the distinguished Distin Quintet, who toured Europe during the mid-nineteenth century. This family of musicians, publishers and instrument manufacturers had a significant impact on the growth of the brass band movement in Great Britain during the mid-to late-1800s.

A contemporary work featuring this instrument is Desire Dondeyne's "Tubissimo", for bass tuba or saxhorn and piano (1983).

The sousaphone is a musical instrument named after John Philip Sousa, the famous marching band conductor and composer.

It was invented in the 1890s to replace tubas in marching bands: in a concert, the tuba is traditionally held on the musician's lap with the bell pointed upward. In marching, however, the musician must hold the tuba in his hands. This proves very difficult due to the weight and shape of the tuba.

The sousaphone is a valved brass instrument with the same tube length as a tuba, but shaped differently so that the bell is above the head, the valves are situated directly in front of the musician a few inches above the waist, and the majority of the weight rests on one shoulder. Thus, the sousaphone can be carried far more easily than a traditional concert tuba, but sounds very similar.

In recent years, sousaphones have been available made of fiberglass instead of brass. The tone is slightly inferior to the brass instrument, but the weight is much less, the cost is lower, and the sound is still acceptable in virtually any marching band performance.

History of the Shofar
Construction of the Shofar

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History of the Shofar

The shofar is a magnificent musical horn that was developed by the ancient Hebrews. This was never a folk instrument nor considered a classical instrument. It was, and is, a ceremonial item. It was used during holy rites, to call assembly or signal a sacrifice. The shofar was also used in battle. The ancient Hebrews used the shofar as a call to war. They believed that the sound would panic their enemies. The sound of the shofar also announced the Jubilee year.

Today, this ancient trumpet of Israel is used in both Jewish and Christian worship. It is most closely associated with the Jewish Holy days of Rosh Hashana (New Years) also called Yom Teru'ah (the day of blowing), and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). Outside of these religions it is not uncommon to find the shofar used in holistic ceremonies or rites associated with the earth elements.

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Construction of the Shofar

The ancient Hebrew shofar was made of animal horn. It was originally made from the horn of a domestic ram. These horns are relatively smooth, crescent shaped and usually just over a foot in length. The Talmud specifies that a shofar must be not less than three hand-breadths long to be used for ceremonial purposes. Other horns used would have included those of domestic sheep and goat, wild mountain goat, antelope, or gazelle. The domestic sheep and goat horns would have been similar to the rams’ horn, only smaller. Today, the wild Nubian ibex goats still dot the Israeli hill sides. The horns of these mountain goats are much longer than rams’ horns. The ibex horn grows with the familiar crescent curve. The silhouette of this horn is more striking that the rams’ due to the large protruding ridges that wrap around the horn along its entire length. The most striking horn, and today most desirable, comes from the Kudu antelope. Kudu horns are very long, most are over 30 inches. Their beauty comes from their length and the way the horn twists.

Kudu antelopes are native to southern Africa. They are a wild free ranging animal that is incredibly beautiful. Their ability to jump over 9 feet (2.5 m) has created some difficulties for the local farmers whose fences are not always tall enough. An adult male kudu can have horns that reach up to 66 inches (168 cm). For the antelope, these horns are much more than decorative. Antelope use their horns during play and, more importantly, during competitive matches with other antelope. A natural horn will often show the signs of these fights. As the kudu horn grows it becomes longer and twists in a helix pattern. A single horn can have color that varies from light tan, to dark gray-black. The growth patterns and texture add interest.

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The sounds

The tekiah and teruah sounds mentioned in the Bible were respectively bass and treble. The tekiah was a plain deep sound ending abruptly; the teruah, a trill between two tekiahs. These three sounds, constituting a bar of music, were rendered three times: first in honor of God's Kingship; next to recall the near sacrifice of Isaac, in order to cause the congregation to be remembered before God; and a third time to comply with the precept regarding the shofar.

Ten appropriate verses from the Bible were recited at each repetition, which ended with a benediction. Over time doubts arose as to the correct sound of the teruah. The Talmud is uncertain whether it means an outcry or a moaning sound. The former was supposed to be composed of three connected short sounds; the latter, of nine very short notes divided into three disconnected or broken sounds. The duration of the teruah is equal to that of the shevarim; and the tekiah is half the length of either. This doubt as to the nature of the real teru'ah, whether it was simply an outcry or a moan, or both, necessitated two repetitions to make sure of securing the correct sound, the following formula, consisting of ten sounds, resulting:

teki'ah, shebarim-teru'ah, teki'ah; teki'ah, shebarim, teki'ah; teki'ah, teru'ah, teki'ah. This formula was repeated twice, making thirty sounds for the series. The last teki'ah was prolonged and was called "teki'ah gedolah" = the "long teki'ah." This series of thirty sounds was repeated twice, making ninety sounds in all. The trebling of the series was based on the mention of teru'ah three times in connection with the seventh month (Lev. xxiii, xxv; Num. xxix), and also on the above-mentioned division into malkiyot, zikronot, and shofarot. In addition a single formula of ten sounds is rendered at the close of the service, making a total of 100 sounds.

A serpent is a wind instrument with a mouthpiece like a brass instrument but side holes like a woodwind instrument. It is a long cone bent into a snakelike shape, hence the name. The serpent is closely related to the cornett. It is generally made out of wood, with walnut being a particularly popular choice. Despite this and the fact that it has fingerholes rather than valves, it is usually classed as a brass, rather than a woodwind, instrument. The Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification places it alongside trumpets.

On early models, the fingerholes were keyless, like ona recorder. Later models, however, add keys, as on a clarinet. The range varies according to the instrument and the player, but typically covers an octave either side of middle C. Some documents from the 18th century, however, state that the instrument can reach notes over two octaves above middle C.

It is thought that the instrument was first used to strengthen the sound of choirs in plainchant. Around the middle of the 18th century, it began to be used in military bands, but was replaced in the 19th century by valved brass instruments. Since then, it has hardly been used at all, although many original models still survive, and it is sometimes played as part of historically authentic performances.

A variation on the serpent was the bass horn, which is essentially the same, but is simpler in shape, consisting of a tube folded back on itself (rather like the modern bassoon), rather than the curvy shape of the original instrument.

A later variation was the ophimonocleide, a sort of cross between the bass horn and the ophicleide. It was never common, and today only a few examples of it exist.