Hot

Music has long been an expression of people from different cultures around the world.  The oldest artefacts that show people playing musical instruments are found in Asia and are around four thousand years old.  Other archaeological findings suggest that different cultures around the world have always focused on their own special instruments and unique methods of playing them.  However, no matter how much music may have differed in different parts of the world, it seems that music served a general common purpose:  to bring people together.

It comes to no surprise that music was widely used in temples and religious ceremonies throughout the world.  The involvement of community in each culture has caused music to evolve in a way that is unique to each one.  Furthermore, as world cultures come into closer contact, they naturally have an influence on one another, such as bluegrass music from the United States, which is a blend of Irish, Scottish, German and African-American instrument-playing and singing.

The aspect of community has been so deeply intertwined with music, that it is difficult to say whether it is music that affects society or if society is reflected in the music that it plays. 

The subject is very complex

To say that any one type of music can influence an entire society is a big generalization.

• As society becomes more modernized, people have moved away from tribal instruments and the simple methods of playing them. 
• Also, as technology becomes more advanced with digital and mobile audio solutions, individuals can listen to complex sound recordings in total isolation, any time and anywhere. 
• Today people can choose to listen to a wide array of styles or to focus on one genre depending on the musical qualities that appeal to them as individuals. 
• Media, such as radio, TV and movies can influence pop culture’s tastes in music.

Does music affect society?  Or is our popular society shaped by the musical sounds that are directed our way and manage to reach our ears?  Are various evolving musical styles simply a continual expression of the subcultures that created them?

Music as a way to affect change in society

The emergence of folk music during the 20th century, and particularly the rise of popular folk music of the 1960’s, is probably the best example of music affecting society.  The Civil Rights Movement was in full swing and the largely unpopular war in Vietnam was well underway. 

Folk music is, inherently, music played and sung by and for everyday people—music for the masses, so to speak.  Naturally, when a culture becomes aware of radical changes that awareness gives way through expression.  Folk singer and songwriter Woody Guthrie began writing “protest music” and songs in support of popular movements of the day.  Other folk singers such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez followed suit. 

For the first time, music was not only a vehicle for expression, but it was also a way to mobilize and inspire listeners to think differently and take action.  The music typically embodied idealistic thinking, shunning capitalism and material comforts.  People in the US, particularly the youth, had showed a variety of favorable responses to this genre of music.  Shifting from the sterile, clean-cut popular image of the 1950’s, there was a general trend toward freedom, individuality and expression.  Generally speaking, ethnic, natural fabrics and hand woven or embroidered clothes became popular; the youth became more open about their experimentation with drugs and sex; there was an overall rejection of power structures and authority.  American society was changed drastically and in a lasting way.

US society since pop folk music

Since the tumultuous times of the 60’s and 70’s, pop folk music has faded out of the limelight. With more complex systems of mass communication, pop culture has become more informed by radio, television, movies and the Internet.  Furthermore, technology is paving the way for modern urban subcultures that have their own unique styles of music, expression and life philosophies.  Music still affects society today; only now, the influences occur in more complex, diverse, and at times subtle ways that are impossible to measure or define.

Throughout history there conductors and musicians have experiments with different sizes and make ups of musical groups to produce the style they are looking for. In some cases, composers have used a single person, while a group between 3-10 is probably the most popular, although in certain types of music groups it is not uncommon to have 50 or more members.

One of the largest musical groups is the orchestra. An orchestra is typically composed of professional musicians who have mastered their instrument and, in many cases, have some type of degree in music. Orchestras typically perform in concert halls and play symphonies, which are oftentimes historic pieces written by famous musicians like Beethoven or Mozart. These historic symphonies are performed exactly as they would have been hundreds of years ago when their creators first wrote them. The orchestra is lead by a conductor who helps keep the tempo and controls the symphony. The instruments used in orchestras are traditionally acoustic instruments and fall into four categories: woodwind, string, brass, and percussion.

A choir is in some ways the opposite of an orchestra. Instead of being composed mainly of instruments, a choir is based on vocals and can contain several hundred members. Choirs are also very old and are seen most commonly in churches. Many popular musicians, including Elvis, discovered music by joining his local church choir.

Because of the availability of electronic instruments, it is no longer necessary to use a large number of people to produce loud music, so modern music groups usually have between 3-10 people. The majority of modern music groups have a lead singer, a drummer, a guitar player, and a bass player. Some groups have additional singers, guitar players, keyboard players, synthesizers, as well as saxophones, and other more traditional instruments. Modern music groups use many different combinations of musical instruments, as well as playing styles, to achieve a desired sound.

A cappella groups are similar to choirs in that they do not use any instruments and they both have their roots in the church. Modern a cappella movements include barbershop and doo wop. Although traditional a cappella is primarily lyrical, many a cappella pieces emulate the sound of instruments or various other noises one may experience in everyday life. While a cappella is not prevalent in mass pop culture, it is becoming more common. Outreach groups have started a cappella competitions, and there have been hundreds of a cappella albums recorded in the last ten years.

The types of groups mentioned in this article are a small sample of the various music groups the have been assembled to get a certain sound or emulate a style. Historic groups like orchestras and choirs are sure to stay in the mainstream, as well as pop culture groups, but as the world and music change, there is no telling what kind of new music groups we may see in the future.

Music is a human activity which involves structured, audible sounds and is used for artistic, entertainment or ceremonial purposes. Music is a major part of our environment. Music is often referred to as "The International Language" - a simple thought with vast implications behind it. Even if you cannot speak the language of a foreign country, you can move, dance, and most of all, enjoy the music of that country. While we may not understand the words to a particular song, we do understand the beauty of the music.

The making of music predates man's use of the written word and is deeply tied to the development and uniqueness of various human cultures. Music has influenced human beings since the dawn of civilization. Music is written and performed for a variety of purposes, including human pleasure, religious or ceremonial functions, or as entertainment products for sale in the marketplace.

Music greatly affects our personal moods. Music can calm and revitalize us in a variety of ways. It can elevate our moods above our personal fears and doubts and even reduce stress and pain levels.

Try listening to a classical music score for a sense of power. Soft, soothing music can help you unwind. And listen to medium-fast to fast music for exercising and house cleaning. Putting additional music in your life can be a powerfully enriching tool.

As with everything created by humans, there is an elemental basis for the composition of music. The basic essence of music lies with its harmony, rhythm, melody and dynamics. Harmony is the relation of notes to notes as they are play simultaneously. Rhythm, by the most simple definition, is musical time. Melody is a musical line of single tones or pitches, heard by the listener as a single unity. Dynamics provide the emotion behind the musical thought. Dynamics tell the performer when to play a piece softly or when to play loudly--music ranges from a mere whisper to the fullest of sound.

Just as there are a multitude of definitions for the term "music", likewise there are many divisions and groupings of music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the precise definition of music. Among the larger theme areas are classical music, popular or commercial music (including rock and roll), country music and folk music. Some genres such as bebop-era jazz, rap, punk rock and electronic music are often discounted as "real music" by member music lovers.

As world cultures have grown closer, their particular musical styles and instruments have often merged. For example, U.S.-American bluegrass music contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions. American music is truly product of the multi-ethnic "melting pot" society.

Whatever style of music you prefer, take the time regularly to enjoy your special musical composition. Music is good for your soul!

Article written by Larry Denton

Douglas Lilburn was born in 1915 on the 2nd of November in a Maternity in Wanganui. He was the youngest son of Robert and Rosamund Lilburn and lived on and farmed the Drysdale station in the upper Turakina valley of the North Island.

In 1920 he attended "Friends school" for primary and prep. In 1929 he went to Waitaki Boys High School, In the south island. He showed great musical talent and got caned during his first week of school for using the piano out of hours.

In 1934 Douglas Lilburn enrolled for a Ba and a diploma of Journalism at Canterbury University College, but soon dropped back to music. In 1936 he achieved a diploma in music. In 1936 his composition "Forest", that had won a Percy Granger Contest, was first performed, he also moved to London in 1937.

In 1940 he returned to NZ and in 1942 the BBCSO recorded his Aotearoa Overture.

In 1941 to 1946 he was a freelance composer and teacher and in 1946 he took a composers class at the Cambridge music school.

He held a part time position (lecturer and professor) at the Victoria University and in 1966 he set up an electronic music studio. He gained an honorary doctorate at Otago University in 1969. In 1978 he got the canz sitation for NZ music and in 1988 an order of NZ medal

On the 6 June 2001 Douglas Lilburn died.

The Mambo is a musical form and style of dance originating from Cuba. The word mambo is the name of a high priestess in Haitian Voodoo, derived from the language of the African slaves who were imported into the Caribbean.

Stylistic origins:	Cuban son montuno and danzon mixed with American big band swing
Cultural origins:	1940s Cubans in Havana, drawing on Haitian-Cuban influences
Typical instruments:	conga, bongo, timbales, claves, upright bass, piano, trombone, trumpet, saxophone
Mainstream popularity:	Significant in Cuba, sporadic in US and elsewhere, peaking in the 1950s

History

The history of modern mambo begins in 1938, when a danzon called "Mambo" was written by Orestes and Cachao Lopez. The song was a danzon, descended from European ballroom dances like the English country dance, French contredanse and Spanish contradanza, but it used rhythms derived from African folk music. The contradanza had arrived in Cuba in the 18th century, where it became known as danza and grew very popular. The arrival of black Haitians later that century changed the face of contradanza, adding a syncopation called cinquillo (which is also found in another contradanza-derivative, Argentine tango).

By the end of the 19th century, contradanza had grown lively and energetic, unlike its European counterpart, and was then known as danzon. The 1877 song "Las alturas de Simpson" was one of many tunes that created a wave of popularity for danzon. One part of the danzon was a coda which became improvised overtime. The bands then were brass (orquestra tipica), but was followed by smaller groups called charangas.

The most influential charanga was that of Antonio Arcano, who flourished in the late 1930s. It was Arcano's cellist, Orestes Lopez, whose "Mambo" was the first modern song of the genre. His brother, bassist and composer Cachao Lopez, is often described as "the inventor of the mambo".

In the late 1940s, a musician named Perez Prado came up with the dance for the mambo and became the first person to market his music as "mambo". After Havana, Prado moved his music to Mexico, and then New York City. Along the way, his style became increasingly homogenized in order to appeal to mainstream American listeners.

Following in the footsteps of Prado came a wave of mambo musicians, such as Enrique Jorrin. Some experimented with new techniques, such as faster beats and the use of side steps in the dance; this latter innovation formed the foundation of chachacha, and was the result of Jorrin's experimentation. Chachacha was very pop-oriented, especially after Arthur Murray further simplified the dance. Mambo remained popular throughout the United States and Cuba until the 1960s, when a combination of boogaloo and pachanga (both modified forms of mambo) were created.

Some of New York's biggest mambo dancers and bands of the 50s included Augie & Margo Rodriguez, Mambo Aces, Killer Joe Piro, Paulito and Lilon, Louie Maquina, Pedro Aguilar ("Cuban Pete"), Machito, Tito Puente, Tito Rodriguez and Jose Curbelo.

By the mid-1950's mambo mania had reached fever pitch. In New York the mambo was played in a high-strung, sophisticated way that had the Palladium Ballroom, the famous Broadway dance-hall, jumping. The Ballroom soon proclaimed itself the "temple of mambo," for the city's best dancers--the Mambo Aces, "Killer Joe" Piro, Augie and Margo Rodriguez, Paulito and Lilon, Louie Maquina and Cuban Pete--gave mambo demonstrations there and made a reputation for their expressive use of arms, legs, head and hands. Augie and Margo became the highest paid dance duo in the world and still dance in Las Vegas 50 years later (2006).

There was fierce rivalry between bands. The bands of Machito, Tito Puente, Tito Rodriguez and Jose Curbelo delighted habitues such as Duke Ellington, Bob Hope, Marlon Brando, Lena Horne and Dizzy Gillespie, not to mention Afro-Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, Upper East-Side WASPs and Jews and Italians from Brooklyn. Class and color melted away in the incandescent rhythm of the music. Even jazz musicians such as Erroll Garner, Charlie Parker, Sonny Rollins and Sonny Stitt fell under the mambo's charm, as can be heard on the many Latin recordings they made in the 1950's.

In 1954 the cha-cha-cha, a kind of mambo created by the Cuban violinist Enrique Jorrin, a member of the Orquesta America Charanga, swept through Havana and New York. Easier to dance than the mambo, with a squarish beat and a characteristic hiccup on the third beat, it spread to Europe, before being dethroned in the early 1960's by the pachanga and then the boogaloo.

Mambo returned to prominence in the 1995 when Guinness used Perez Prado's track Guaglione in an advertising campaign featuring the dancing of Dublin actor Joe McKinney. The song was released as a single and reached number 2 in the UK charts. In 1999, Lou Bega released a remix of Mambo No. 5, another Prado original, which became a hit across Europe.

• Introduction
• History
• The Compact Disk
• The CD player
• Sampling analogue data
• The Floppy Disk
• The CD-R
• The CD-RW

Introduction

The Compact Disk (CD) over the last 10 years has become one of the most convenient, and most used ways to store music, and also many other types of information. It has been a major development in newer technologies like the DVD and has changed the way we deal with information.

In this report I will cover the History of the Compact Disk, the way a compact disk is made, the parts of a compact disk player and the way a CD works with the CD player.

 

History

1877 - Thomas A. Edison invented the phonograph, one of the first machines to reproduce sound. The phonograph played tinfoil cylinders rather than discs, but it would give others in the future, ideas to create similar devices.

1884 - Emil Berliner, a German developer working in Washington, D.C. developed the first usable disk recording technology that could "press" records. This was a big step forward as previously sound that was recorded could not be copied.

1917 Albert Einstein created theories about the process that makes lasers possible called "Stimulated Emission" (a very complex process where One photon interacting with an excited atom results in two photons being emitted.)

1947 - Magnetic tape recorders entered the US Market

1958 - The laser was invented, based on theory by Albert Einstein

1969 - The idea of creating a CD was conceived by Klass Compaan, a physicist that worked at Phillips Research. The main part of the idea, a lot like the record, was being able to use a master template as a mould to create disks for photographic or video images. This could be done in less time than it took to create other types of media and the resulting disk could hold much more information.

1970 - Klass Compaan became partners with another Phillips researcher, Pete Kramer. They spent the next two years investigating how practical such a system was.

1972 - Two years after starting to investigate how practical the system was, they completed a glass disk prototype and determined that a laser will be needed to read the information.

Later that year and in the following years, Phillips developers took this idea and expanded on it with the idea that an audio disk done by similar means. Phillips soon developed the first audio compact disk prototype.

1978 - Phillips soon ran into problems with the development of the compact disk and decided to collaborate on the idea with Sony. There were soon suggestions that world wide standards should be made for similar compact disk like prototypes.

Latter that year, more decisions about the Compact Disk were made, with PolyGram (a division of Phillips) deciding that polycarbonate would be the best material for Compact Disks, that the data should start on the inside of the disk and spiral out, and that the Diameter should be 115 mm. The type of laser to be used was also selected.

1979 - Prototype Compact Disk systems were soon demonstrated in Europe and Japan and with the Phillips and Sony collaboration going ahead, more standards were made. Phillips and Sony decide to set the standard sampling rate of the CD to 44.1 kHz, to have 16 bit audio, and the maximum playing time to be just over 74 minutes.

As the current disk diameter did not allow enough room for these specifications, the disk diameter was changed to 120 mm.

1981 - With the announcement of Phillips and Sony's CD standard, they decided to end their collaboration so they can work on their individual products. Also during 1981, Sharp started to mass produce semiconductor lasers.

1982 - Sony and Phillips with in one year had a product ready to go, and soon released the CD to the public

In the years after 1982, the Compact Disk continued to climb in popularity. Soon there were many devices that used the CD. CD-ROMs were used to store computer files, Cars were fitted with CD players, and portable CD players were sold.

In the last ten years, the idea of the Compact Disk has been taken further with recordable CDs. Even the new "DVDs" use technology that was originally developed for CDs.

 

The Compact Disk

 The largest part of Compact Disk is the clear polycarbonate base of the plastic disk. When a typical Compact Disk is being made, a polycarbonate plastic is injected into a pre made mould. This mould is used to create very small bumps over the top surface of the CD. As the CD is read with a laser from the bottom, the bumps appear to the CD player as pits.

When the plastic base is set, a thin aluminium layer is spread to cover the top of the CD. This aluminium layer is used to reflect the light when the light hits a pit or flat region (where there is no pit).

The next layer that is applied to the top of the Compact Disk is a thin acrylic layer to protect the disk, followed by a label.

The advantage that the method of creating Compact Disks has over previous methods of creating audio storage is that the injection (or stamping) of the plastic also puts the data onto the disk. Previous, tape based devices had to be recorded onto once the tape was made.

The series of pits that were placed on the CD when it was created, spiral from the inside to the outside in once continuous track. The spiralling track is about 1.6 microns away from itself.

A typical pit that is on this data track is about 0.83 to 3.56 microns long, about 125 microns deep and 0.5 microns wide.  

To give an indication on how small these bumps are, there are one million microns in a meter and a human hair is about 75 microns wide. Because they are so small, they refract the light and give the CD a rainbow effect.

 

The CD player

The drive motor is the actual motor that spins the disk. This motor must be precise and be able to spin the CD between 500 and 200 RPMs. The reason that it needs to be able to vary the CDs spin speed is that the track must pass over the laser at a constant speed. When laser moves towards the edge, the length of track that it takes to go around the CD increases, meaning a lower speed is needed. A laser track mechanism is used to move the laser from the inside of the disk to the outside. It is precise enough to move the laser over the track and make micron sized adjustments.

A laser and lens are used to focus light onto the CD. When the laser is focused onto the pits, the beam goes through the polycarbonate layer and reflects off the aluminium layer.

The pits reflect the light in such a way the electronics equipment can pick up the difference between a pit and an area on the disk without a pit. This series of pits and non-pits can be interpreted by light sensitive equipment and translated in a series of ones and zero called binary.

 

Sampling analogue data

The problem with putting analogue data onto a digital storage medium like a CD is that when the data is read from the CD, the information is in binary. Unlike a normal analogue sound signals that at any one time can be a multitude of values, binary is a one or a zero. It is because of this that it would not be possible to transfer all the analogue information on a CD this way. Instead, at a steady rate, the value of the analogue signal has been stored to the CD. This rate is called the sampling rate and in the case of the CD, it is 44.1 kHz.

When this sampled value that has been stored on the CD is read, it still only has a sampled value. With the use of a Digital to analogue converter, the sampled rate is converted back in an analogue signal. As not all the information was sampled, the resulting line becomes less curved. As the sampling rate is increased, the rate of error or lost information is reduced.

 

The Floppy Disk

Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular piece of metal-coated plastic

Although floppy disks have been used for over 20 years, a normal floppy disk is about 1.44MB in size. This is 450 times smaller than a CD, and it is because of this that the floppy disk is nearly unused now.

Also because of their design, dust can stop the disk operating and it is because of this that CDs are more reliable than floppy disks.

 

The CD-R

CD recordable or CD-R is similar to the CD, but can be written to once by a CD-R drive. This means that more people can write CDs and larger files can be swapped between computers.

 

The CD-RW

The CD-RW is similar to the CD-R, but as well as being able to write to the disk multiple times, the CD can also be wiped. This means that files can be corrected and changed on the disk.

The amount of times that a CD-RW can be wiped, depends on the quality and can vary greatly.

 

Wordnet / HyperDictionary Definition

1. Recurring at regular intervals
2. The arrangement of spoken words alternating stressed and unstressed elements; "the rhythm of Frost's poetry"
3. The basic rhythmic unit in a piece of music; "the piece has a fast rhythm"; "the conductor set the beat"
4. An interval during which a recurring sequence of events occurs; "the neverending cycle of the seasons"

Wikipedia Definition

Rhythm (Greek ρυθμός = tempo) is the variation of the duration of sounds over time. When governed by rule, it is called meter. It is inherent in any time-dependent medium, but it is most associated with music, dance, and the majority of poetry. The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody; it is a topic in linguistics. All musicians, instrumentalists and vocalists, work with rhythm, but it is often considered the primary domain of drummers and percussionists.

In Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying pulse, called the beat, is the tempo. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with measure length), is divided almost exclusively into either two or three beats, being called duple meter and triple meter, respectively. If each beat is further divided by two it is simple meter, if by three compound meter.

Some genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on divisive rhythm, while non-Western music uses more additive rhythm. African music makes heavy use of polyrhythms, and Indian music uses complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while Balinese music often uses complex interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western classical music is fairly rhythmically simple; it stays in a simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of syncopation. In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones).

Clave is a common underlying rhythm in African, Cuban music, and Brazilian music.

A rhythm section generally consists of percussion instruments, and possibly chordal instruments (e.g., guitar, banjo) and keyboard instruments, such as piano (which, by the way, may be classified in any of these three types of instruments).

Narmour (1980, p.147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation.

A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level, as opposed to a rhythmic gesture which does not.

Tempo
Dynamics
Style
Miscellaneous

---

TEMPO

Slow

• grave - very slow, serious
• largo - broad, stately
• lento - slow
• adagio - slow, tranquil

Moderate

• andante - moving; literally, "walking"
• moderato - moderately fast

Fast

• allegro - fast; literally, "cheerful"
• allegretto - fast; literally, "cheerful"
• vivace - very fast
• presto - very, very fast
• prestissimo - as fast as possible

Acceleration

• accelerando - with increasing rapidity
• stringendo - pressing, becoming faster
• doppio movimento - twice as fast
• piu mosso - at a faster speed
• piu moto or veloce - at a faster speed

Decreasing Speed

• rallentando - gradually slower
• ritardando - gradually slower
• allargando - gradually slower
• ritenuto - held back, slowed down
• meno mosso - steady, but slower than before
• meno moto - steady, but slower than before
• morendo - dying, fading away

Return to Original Tempo

• a tempo - resume previous tempo
• tempo primo - go back to original tempo

Continue Into New Section

• segue - continue into new section, do not stop
• l'istesso tempo - continue at the same tempo

Top

---

DYNAMICS

• pianississimo - very, very soft
• pianissimo - very soft
• piano - soft
• mezzo piano - medium soft
• mezzo forte - medium loud
• forte - loud
• fortissimo - very loud
• fortississimo - very, very loud
• forte-piano - accent strongly, diminishing immediately to piano
• crescendo - gradually louder
• decrescendo or diminuendo - gradually softer

Top

---

STYLE

• agitato - restless, agitated
• amoroso - affectionately
• animato - with spirit
• brilliante - bright-sparkling
• delicato - delicately
• deciso - decided, with firmness
• dolce - softly, sweetly
• doloroso - sorrowfully
• furioso - furiously
• grandioso - pompous, majestic
• grazioso - in a graceful way
• legato - smoothly, opposite of staccato
• Maestoso - majestic, stately
• marcato - detached and accented
• passionato - with fervor
• pesante - heavily, emphatically
• risoluto - with bold, energetic resolve
• scherzando - playfully
• sostenuto - sustained, prolonged
• sotto voce - in a quiet, subdued tone
• spirito - with spirit
• staccato - detached, separate
• tranquillo - peacefully, calmly
• violento - with violence
• vivo - with life and animation
• volante - flyingly
• vivace - briskly, brightly

Top

---

MISCELLANEOUS

• 8va - play one octave higher or lower than written notes
• a2 or a due - together, both performers play
• accent - play a note with added stress
• ala - in the style of
• coda - a closing section
• con - with
• poco a poco - little by little
• con sordino - with mute
• da capo or (D.C) - go back to the beginning
• da capo al fine - go back to the beginning, play to the fine
• dal Segno - go back to the sign
• divisi - divided for separate instruments
• fine - the end
• glissando - slurred smoothly in a gliding manner
• mezzo - half-moderately
• molto - much, very
• mosso - motion, movement
• moto primo - same as at first
• obbligato - counter melody
• opus - a work
• piu - more
• poco or un poco - a little
• poco a poco - little by little
• precipitando - speedily, hurridly
• senza - without
• sforzando - with sudden emphasis
• simile - the same
• solo - for one performer
• stretto or stretta - increase of speed
• subito - suddenly
• super - above
• tacet - do not play
• tempo - rate of speed
• tempo di valse - in waltz time
• tenuto - held for full value
• trio - for three performers
• triplet - a group of three notes
• tutti - all the instruments
• va crescendo - continue increasing

Top

A musical ensemble can be defined as a group of several or many musicians that are playing a piece of music together. There are a few types of ensembles named according to their size and the instruments used.

The terms duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, and nonet describe an ensemble by its size. The names range from duet meaning 2 musicians to nonet meaning 9 musicians. Some of these are found more often than others, below are some of the more common ones:

• String Quartet

  • 2 Violins

  • A Viola

  • A Violoncello

• String Quintet

  • 2 Violins

  • 2 Violas

  • A Violoncello

• Piano Quintet

  • 2 Violins

  • A Viola

  • A Violoncello

  • A Piano

When an ensemble has more instruments it is usually called an orchestra, with a small orchestra known as a chamber orchestra. Symphony orchestras have more than 20 and often over 100 musicians, divided into groups of instruments:

• Violins (I and II)

• Violas

• Violoncellos

• Basses

• Woodwinds

• Brass

• Percussion

• and more

The terms symphonic and philharmonic are mainly used to distinguish different symphony orchestras from each other.

Some other terms you may encounter are:

Sinfonietta

A smaller orchestra that is not as small as a chamber orchestra.

String Orchestra

An orchestra that only has strings, i.e., violins, violas, violoncellos and basses.

Concert or Pop Orchestra

An orchestra concentrating mainly on the light classical and more popular repertoire.

Band

A group that plays more popular music composed in the last 50 to 100 years.

Choir

A choir is a group of voices. Sometimes the group of similar instruments in an orchestra are referred to as a choir. For example, the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir.

Most commonly heard music has copyrights. A copyright is a acknowledgement of ownership by law that permits the owner of a copyright to prevent others from reproducing, displaying, performing, or distributing ideas expressed in a fixed medium such as text, film, videotape, sound recording, computer disk, or 3-dimensional form. Music falls into this 'copyrightable' category.

If you play, perform, or record any music that you have not created, you are using copyrighted music. This is only exempt if the composer has been dead for more than 50 to 70 years (depending on the country). Which is the case for most classical and traditional music and from all around the world (excluding arrangements).

When is a license is needed?

You need a license to play or use any copyrighted music. When you buy to a CD, you have brought a licence to play the music on the CD for your own personal use. If you want to do anything more with the music, like playing it in front of an audience, use it in a work (like a video), reproduce or record your own version, you will need another licence.

What type of licenses are there?

There are three general types of licences.

• A performance license is required to be able to play copyrighted music "live" or recorded music in front of an audience.
• A mechanical license is written permission from the publisher to manufacture and distribute a record, CD or audio tape fora specific copyrighted composition. The amount of the royalty paid to a songwriter from a mechanical license is determined by how many recordings are sold.
• Synchronization licenses allows you to use copyrighted works combination with visual images such as music in films, TV, videos, computer programs.

How to get Licences

The process of getting permission to use a piece of music is often referred to as "clearing the rights" to the music or securing a "license" from the owner of the copyright. Since nobody can track down all composers or publishers to obtain such permissions, agencies have been established.

Which agency is responsible for your licensing depends on the country you live in, but each agency knows the others very well and they will direct you to the right one, if you come to them by accident. Especially in the USA there are several agencies doing the same type of licensing for only a part of copyright owners but all know of the others and have the address. If you are unsure, ask one of them and they can help direct you.

Canada

• Socan

United States

• ASCAP
• Sesac
• HFA

Germany

• Gema

United Kingdom

• MCPS
• PRS
• PPLUK

Wordnet / HyperDictionary Definition

1. The perception of pleasant arrangements of musical notes
2. A succession of notes forminga distinctive sequence; "she was humming an air from Beethoven"

Wikipedia Definition

In music, a melody is a series of linear events or a succession, not a simultaneity as in a chord. However, this succession must contain change of some kind and be perceived as a single entity (possibly gestalt) to be called a melody. Most specifically this includes patterns of changing pitches and durations, while most generally it includes any interacting patterns of changing events or quality. Melody may be said to result where there are interacting patterns of changing events occurring in time.

"The events occurring in time must involve change of some kind to be understood as related or unrelated...The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality [timbre, texture, and loudness]" Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases, motifs, and is usually repeated throughout a song or piece in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominately conjuct or disjunct or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape.

A singer or vocalist is a type of musician who sings, i.e. uses the voice as an instrument to make music.

In classical music and in opera, voices are treated just like musical instruments, thus special careers were developed out of each principal pitch.

Voices are commonly classified into: Female voices:

• soprano
• mezzo-soprano
• alto

Male voices:

• countertenor
• tenor
• baritone
• bass
• castrato

A carillon is a musical instrument composed of a range of bells controlled by a keyboard.

Carillons originated in the 15th century in Flanders, when bell-makers perfected their art to the point where bells could be cast with an exact tone. The greatest concentration of antique carillons is still found in Belgium, the Netherlands, and the northern regions of France and Germany, where they were commonly put in place by rich market towns as tokens of civic pride and status. They were most often housed in church towers, clock towers, or on municipal buildings, and the same holds true for those carillons that have been installed in other parts of the world since the art of casting precisely tuned bells was rediscovered in the late 19th century. In Germany, such a carillon is also called a glockenspiel.

Since each separate note is produced by an individual bell, a carillon's musical range is determined by the number of bells it has. With fewer than 23 (two octaves), the instrument is considered a chime, not a true carillon. Average instruments have ranges of around four anda half octaves (47 bells), while the largest specimens, with as many as 77, can span six octaves. In comparison, standard grand pianos can play 88 different notes.

Seated in a cabin beneath the bells, the carillonneur presses down, with a cupped hand or fist, on a series of baton-like keys arranged in the same pattern as a piano keyboard. The keys activate levers and wires that connect directly to the bells' clappers; thus, as with a piano, the carillonneur can vary the intensity of the note according to the force applied to the key. In addition to the manual keys, the heavier bells are also connected to a series of pedals, offering the carillonneur a choice of two ways of playing the lower notes.

Noted carillons can be found in the following locations:

• Arlington, Virginia: The Netherlands Carillon. A 50-bell gift from the people of the Netherlands, with bells cast by all three major Dutch foundries.
• Mexico City: The Banobras Carillon. A 47-bell instrument in the world's tallest carillon tower (125 m), which is part of a Mexican government development bank office complex in the Tlatelolco district.
• Montreal, Canada: The Carillon of St. Joseph's Oratory. A 56-bell carillon installed in 1956.
• New Haven, Connecticut: Harkness Carillon in Harkness Tower at Yale University: 10 bells (a chime) installed in 1922, and an additional 44 bells installed in 1964, for a total of 54 bells.
• Norwood, Massachusetts: The Walter F. Tilton Carillon, in the Norwood Memorial Municipal Building. A 51-bell instrument made by Gillette and Johnston, with bells ranging in size from 6½" to 71" (16.5 to 180 cm).
• Ottawa, Canada: The Peace Tower Carillon, in the Houses of Parliament,. 53 bells.
• Mechelen, Belgium: The St. Rumbolds Cathedral contains two carillons.

What people understand and accept as music varies according to location, historical era, culture and individual taste. The actual definition of music is hotly contested; one definition of music may include only those sounds which are considered "pleasant" by the definer, while another may include any sound produced intentionally by an individual or a group. Other definitions may focus on defining music as a physical phenomenon (in terms of sound), as a psychological phenomenon, or as a social phenomenon. Thus music must contain physical, psychological, and social phenomena, including theory, performance practice, dance, and poetry.

Aspects of Music

The commonly defined aspects that make up music are:

• Timbre

• Pitch

• Intensity

• Duration

Timbre is the quality of a sound and varies between voices and musical instruments, which are tools used to produce sound. Pitch is how high or low a sound is, and may be further described as definite pitch or indefinite pitch. Intensity is how loud or quiet a sound is and includes how stressed a sound is. Silence is also often considered an aspect of music, if it is considered to exist. Duration is the only aspect common to both "sound" and "silence", being the temporal aspect of music. The spatial location or the movement in space of sounds may also be an aspect of music.

A musician is a person who composes, conducts or performs music.

The quality of your practice is much more important than the quantity. The old saying "practice makes perfect" is only true if the practice itself is perfect. Here are 7 tips to help make your practice more effective and efficient.

Practice motions slowly

The muscular memory of our bodies allows us to physically carry out patterns of motion with little or no conscious involvement. Examples of muscular memory include walking, riding a bicycle, typing, and of course playing a musical instrument.

In order to develop this memory, the muscles require training in the form of repeated conscious guidance from the mind. First the mind must learn the pattern. Then the mind must "teach" the pattern to the muscles.

The mind initially must control all the motions of the muscles. The more controlled and precise the motions, the more quickly the muscles will develop muscle memory.

Slow practice also allows the mind to teach "antagonistic muscles" to relax. Antagonistic muscles are those that move in opposite directions. By relaxing antagonistic muscles you can reduce tension and facilitate faster and easier performance and avoid potential injury.

Practice in small cells

A "practice cell" is simply a finite series of motions. Musical cells can correspond to anything from a few notes to an entire work. When practising, it is important to practice small cells of just a few notes. Practising small cells limits the amount of information the muscles have to learn at one time. It also facilitates the mind's focus and concentration.

Link the end of one cell to the beginning of the next

To help the muscles develop a sense of continuum throughout the piece of music, the last motion in a cell should be the first motion of the following cell.

Practice each cell in bursts

Once the muscles have learned a pattern, they will be capable of executing it without conscious control. Initiate the pattern through a conscious command and allow the muscles to execute it in a burst.

Don't practice mistakes

For every repetition required to learn a pattern of motion, it takes 7 times the number of repetitions to change the pattern. If in the course of your practice you make an error, stop. Review in your mind the pattern. And further reduce the speed of your motions.

Pause between repetitions

When dealing with repetitive activities, the mind is better able to focus when the repetitions are broken up by short pauses. After two or three repetitions, pause for about 30 seconds to regain focus.

Take frequent breaks and don't "over-practice"

B.F. Skinner and other experts have found that the mind's ability to learn drops significantly after prolonged intense concentration. Research shows that studying too long (i.e. more than four hours) can deplete chemicals in the brain necessary for learning. Therefore, it is best to take frequent breaks (a 5 minute break about every 20-25 minutes) and practice no more than 4 hours consecutively.

By applying these techniques, you can dramatically improve the quality of your practice. You'll be able to use your time more efficiently and increase the effectiveness of your practice.

While the iPod craze has been going on, it seems that everyone has forgotten about Sony, who practically owned the personal music player market a few years ago. When the Sony Walkman came out, it seems like a big deal and Sony was the brand to have. Now they are back.

The latest release from Sony is the NWS200 Series MP3 Walkman. What sets this player apart from other players is not just the fact that it is compact and lightweight, but that it is packed with unique features. This includes a durable, water-resistant body; various playback options including “Music Pacer” and “Shuffle Shake” functions, FM tuner and integral sports counters.

Music Pacer

If there was one feature that was lacking from every MP3 player, this it it. When I listen to music while running, I find it quite had to keep up a steady pace when the music is significantly fast or slower than my running speed. I often have to stop running so that I can press the buttons on my iPod and select a better song. The Music Pacer automatically detects the speed at which the user is stepping and can change the music accordingly from pre made lists.

Sports counters

The Sony NWS200 Walkman has the ability to measure many items about your exercise:

• Real-time calorie counter
• Distance travelled
• Steps taken
• Running time

One of the really cool features is the ability to set personal targets for each exercise session so that the music stops after a specific time period has lapsed, calories expended or distance has been travelled. All functions are operated via a simple jog dial shuttle for ease of use whilst the user is on the move.

Fast charge

Once my iPod goes flat, it seems to take a long time charging before I am able to use it again. The brilliant thing about the Sony NWS200 Walkman is that it can provide 3 hours of playback after only 3 minutes of charging. Even if it was dead flat, it would be able to last my full run if I start charging it just before I get ready to go.

iPod + Nike shoes

For similar features from an iPod, it seems that you would need to buy a specific pair of shoes (if they fit). This seems totally crazy.

The other crazy thing about the iPod system is that if you wanted to use it to track how well you run, and listen to the radio... Sorry you can't. It seems that the iPod can only take one attachment at a time.

Water-resistant

If you want another reason to buy the Sony NWS200 Walkman, just try running with your iPod in the rain.

Everyone knows that going for a run is good for you, but most of us do not run for various reasons. The most common reason for people not running is that they find it boring. After the first 15 minutes of an hour long run, boredom really starts to set in and you wonder why you are making yourself do this.

Overcoming boredom

If you get bored running, you really should try running with music. One runner I met raved about how great it was to be able to listen to music and that he would not be out running if he had no music. On his website he stated:

Benefits of running with music

It is becoming very common to see runners using iPods and other music players to play music while they run. 90% of runners find that running with music not only helps prevent boredom, but also help them keep up the pace. 

There are many benefits for running with music:

• Help overcome boredom
• The beat of the music can help set the pace of your run
• Music can be inspirational to you
• Takes your mind off running
• Help people get away from reality and calm themselves as they run
• Calm down after a stressful day.

In saying that there are a few disadvantages to running with music:

• Some people like to run and listen to the sounds around them more than music.
• Loud music can make you oblivious to another runner coming up behind you.
• It has also been determined that criminals look for people who aren't paying attention to their surroundings, for example people talking on cellphones or people listening to music.

MP3 player revolution

Until recently, personal music players like the CD player have been to big and heavy to carry on a run. When the small, light weight MP3 player were released, they could be strapped out of the way on your arm and do not move around when you run.

Beats per minute

When it comes to recommending music for running or the best number of beats per minute (BPM), it varies from person to person. As some of us run faster than others and some have a shorter stride, different music tempos suit us.

One person recommended music that was around 170 BPM to 180 BPM, or music that was 85 BPM to 95 BPM. The difference is that you can take one step on each beat of the faster music, where as you can take 2 steps for each beat of the slower music.

Recommended music

One of the most common songs to run to is Survivor's "Eye of the Tiger", which was a theme from the Rocky series. In saying this, everyone has different music tastes. Below are recommendations from different users that might give you some ideas:

Rob

• Temptations - 2Pac
• Easy Tonight - Five For Fighting
• Joyride - Rooster
• Break of Day - Tina Dico
• Lose Yourself - Eminem
• True Nature - Janes Addiction
• Ordinary - Train
• Something About You - Five For Fighting
• Boulevard Of Broken Dreams - Green Day
• Whole Lotta Love - Led Zeppelin
• Woke Up This Morning - Nickelback

Fred

• Almost - Bowling for Soup
• Move Along - All American Rejects
• Steady as she goes - The Raconteurs
• I write sins not tragedies - Panic! at the Disco
• Dirty Little Secret - All American Rejects
• Mardy Bum - Artic Monkeys
• No Matter What - Def Leppard
• Whiskey In the Jar - Metallica

Hux

• Brimful of Asha (Fatboy Slim Remix) - Cornershop
• Smooth Criminal - Alien Antfarm
• No One Knows - Queens of the Stone Age
• Disintegrator - DJ Swamp
• Walkie Talkie - DJ Shadow
• Doesn't Remind Me - AudioSlave
• Superman - Stereophonics

Sam

• Best of you - Foo Fighters
• Stone Cold Crazy - Metalica
• The One - Foo Fighters
• A Secret Place - Megadeth
• Pump It - Black Eyed Peas
• Modern Love - David Bowie
• You Might Think - The Cars
• Power Song: Idiot - Lisa Marie Presley

Unknown

• BecK - Loser
• Berlin - the Metro
• Tom Petty - Last Dance with Mary Jane
• Everlast - What it's Like
• The Cure - Pictures of You
• Chili Peppers - Scar Tissue
• Nelly - Shake your Tailfeather
• Shawn Colvin - Sonny Came Home
• Everlast - Ends
• Nickelback - How you remind me

1. Movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of different quantities or conditions: the rhythm of the tides.
2. The patterned, recurring alternations of contrasting elements of sound or speech.
3. Music.
   1. The pattern of musical movement through time.
   2. A specific kind of such a pattern, formed by a series of notes differing in duration and stress: a waltz rhythm.
   3. A group of instruments supplying the rhythm in a band.
4. 1. The pattern or flow of sound created by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in accentual verse or of long and short syllables in quantitative verse.
   2. The similar but less formal sequence of sounds in prose.
   3. A specific kind of metrical pattern or flow: iambic rhythm.
5. 1. The sense of temporal development created in a work of literature or a film by the arrangement of formal elements such as the length of scenes, the nature and amount of dialogue, or the repetition of motifs.
   2. A regular or harmonious pattern created by lines, forms, and colors in painting, sculpture, and other visual arts.
6. The pattern of development produced in a literary or dramatic work by repetition of elements such as words, phrases, incidents, themes, images, and symbols.
7. Procedure or routine characterized by regularly recurring elements, activities, or factors: the rhythm of civilization; the rhythm of the lengthy negotiations.

In simple terms, rhythm is a word that refers to the length of each note in a piece of music. This means that if you take a song that you know and say the words in time with clapping, you will be clapping the rhythm.

“Rhythm” must not be confused with “beat” or “pulse”. The beat of the music is a regular pulse (like the regular pulse of someone’s heartbeat). Music may feel as if it is going 1-2-1-2 or 1-2-3-1-2-3 or 1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4. When we write the music down we put each group in bars (or “measures”). The first beat of the bar feels stronger than the others.

All musicians have to have a good sense of rhythm. To play or sing rhythmically they must keep a steady beat in their head (if playing alone), listen to the others players (if playing in groups) or watch the conductor (if there is one).

People who are playing on their own can practise with a metronome to help them to play to a steady beat. However, musicians also use rubato (rhythmic freedom), especially when playing music of a romantic nature. One has to learn to let the music “breathe” in the right way. This is not the same as playing unrhythmically (badly). It is something one learns with experience.

Sometimes the word rhythm is used in a more general sense to mean the general flow of the music, or of life in general ("the rhythm of life").

Music can be beautiful, and for those who play an instrument, the musical experience is even richer, especially if you want to be a professional musician. No matter what your chosen instrument is, there is a professional path. Some desire fame. Others simply want to get paid doing what they love. No matter what your goals are, there are things to consider that will help put you on the path to success.

Here is some advice on what you need to know to become a musician.

Choose Your Instrument

This may seem obvious, but some musicians have a difficult time focusing on just one instrument. If you want to be a professional musician, your chances of making a lucrative living will be greater if you spend all your energy focusing one thing. Of course, there are people who make a good living at a few different instruments, but they are the exceptions.

Get to Know Your Instrument

Once you choose your instrument, the next step is to practice, practice, practice. Not only practice, but get to know your instrument as much as possible. If you play the guitar, get to know the fretboard to the point where you can visualize it. Learn all the chords and scales you can, etc. The more you know your instrument, the easier it will be to become a success.

Take lessons

Another essential step to becoming a musician is to take lessons. You may think you can learn all there is to know by yourself by reading books, etc. But, working with a teacher has a lot of benefits. They can help point out weaknesses, thus shortening your learning curve. They can also help expand your knowledge by encouraging you to play things you wouldn't normally play.

Find Reasons to Perform

A big part of being a musician is your ability to perform. That is why you need to find reasons to play your instrument in front of people. Join the school band. Start a rock group. Visit coffee houses and play your instrument. Do what you need to do to get experience playing in front of people. The more you do this, the easier it will get.

Consider Music School

Another option is to consider going to a performing arts high school or university. Speciality schools can help shape you into a great musician, and also open doors that you may not have considered. Of course, there is a down side to going to a school devoted to the performing arts. Many musicians find these environments stifling.

Your Goals

There are so many roads you can travel down to be a musician, the only way to really keep it straight is to set goals and define your own path. Decide what type of music you would like to play and exactly what you want to do with your career. If you want to start a rock band, make that your goal. The end result may be to get discovered by a top producer, or make a living performing with your violin, etc.