RaftingCanadian

The dombra is a long-necked, two-stringed instrument, possessing a resonating chamber, somewhat similar to a banjo or a lute, and especially popular in the Central Asian nations.

The dombra is played by either strumming with the hand or plucking each string individually, with an occasional tap on the main surface of the instrument. While the two strings are traditionally made of sinew, modern dombras are usually produced using nylon strings.

It is a traditional instrument of Central Asia, and is especially popular in such countries as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, among others. The Uzbek dombra is usually unfretted, while the Kazkakh dombra is played with a fret.

The Kazakh poet, Abai Kunanbaev, is often shown holdinga dombra at rest. In fact, the instrument is a very traditional one, and many hold it in high regard as a symbol of nationalism among the post-Soviet nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Their are a number of similar instruments that differ very little from the dombra described here. Turkmenistan has the dutar. Tajikistan has the dombura.

Overview of the timpani

The timpani are a percussion instrument, also known as the kettledrum.  It is a kind of drum that has three main parts to it: 

1. A head, made of animal skin that is stretched over the top of the instrument
2. A bowl that is usually made of copper, and finally
3. A timpani mallet that is used to strike the head of the drum 

A percussionist who plays the timpani is called a timpanist. 

History of the timpani

The oldest timpani were used as European military drums.  They were about 16”-17” in diameter and about as deep as they were wide.  The military orchestras that played these drums were small.  The timpani were also small.  These small drums were used in many different classical orchestras during the 17th century.  Bach and Handel’s early orchestras had drums that copied the sound of these early, small old-style timpani.

As time went by, orchestras were beginning to add more wind and brass instruments.  Also, the string section grew as different types of new instruments were being added.  All of these changes in the orchestra affected the way the timpani were being made and played as well.  Instrument makers were creating timpani that were bigger in size and sound.  This matched the “growing” sound of the music that was being played in the bigger orchestras of the romantic period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 

Along with the historical changes in the size of the timpani, musicians were also using bigger spaces between the drums when they played.  For example, the spaces increased from 1” between the drums to 3” from the baroque period and Beethoven’s later symphonies.  Composers also wanted to hear more different note combinations being played.  So, instead of the original pair of timpani became three and four drums.

Composers Wagner and Strauss thought of more changes for the timpani.  They wanted to be able to change the sound of each drum in very little time.  In the middle of the 20th century, the timpani had changed so much and had become a standard size.  However, they became more complex because of the addition of special pedals to change the tuning and to create special sounds.  Also, instrument makers were making the drums from different types of skins.  The timpani was made in a bigger variety of ways than ever before.

Then, in the middle of the 20th century, something changed.  People began to be interested in the sounds of the original timpani.  They no longer wanted to hear the sounds that came from the larger timpani that modern orchestras were using.  So, over the past 500 years, instrument makers have been building timpani smaller and smaller so that they look and sound more like the original drums that were made for classical orchestras hundreds of years ago.

Today, the different kinds of timpani are played as part of several kinds of music ensembles and bands.

Origin of the Lyre Harp
Description of the Lyre Harp

Origin of the Lyre Harp

The oldest known depiction of a Lyre is dated to 2800 BC in Sumeria. The basic design of a lyre is a sound box, or resonator, with two arms connecting a crossbar, and having strings that run parallel with the length of the instrument. The Sumerians held the lyre vertically, with the crossbar at the top. The Egyptians played their lyres with the crossbar pointing out away from their body. The lyre was also known to the ancient Greeks. It was said that Hermes, the messenger of the gods, made the first lyre from a tortoise shell. The use of the Lyre was widespread in the ancient world. In the present day, the lyre is limited almost exclusively to parts of Africa and Siberia. Across time and geography the lyre has changed in many ways. The number of strings, how the instrument was held, and whether it was plucked, strummed, or played with a plectrum has varied. Depending on the style and size, lyre strings have been played from one or both sides.

Description of the Lyre Harp

Mid-East’s Lyre Harp has an over all length of twenty-five inches. The two asymmetrical rosewood arms and the crossbar are inlaid with Celtic Knot-work. Sixteen metal strings run from the tuning pegs on the crossbar to the base of the soundboard. The strings pass over a brass bridge that is positioned diagonally across the face of the soundboard. On either side of this bridge are rosette sound holes carved into the soundboard. These strings are tuned by turning the pegs. The tuning tool is included. A padded nylon case is included for storage and transportation of your lyre.

Music has long been an expression of people from different cultures around the world.  The oldest artefacts that show people playing musical instruments are found in Asia and are around four thousand years old.  Other archaeological findings suggest that different cultures around the world have always focused on their own special instruments and unique methods of playing them.  However, no matter how much music may have differed in different parts of the world, it seems that music served a general common purpose:  to bring people together.

It comes to no surprise that music was widely used in temples and religious ceremonies throughout the world.  The involvement of community in each culture has caused music to evolve in a way that is unique to each one.  Furthermore, as world cultures come into closer contact, they naturally have an influence on one another, such as bluegrass music from the United States, which is a blend of Irish, Scottish, German and African-American instrument-playing and singing.

The aspect of community has been so deeply intertwined with music, that it is difficult to say whether it is music that affects society or if society is reflected in the music that it plays. 

The subject is very complex

To say that any one type of music can influence an entire society is a big generalization.

• As society becomes more modernized, people have moved away from tribal instruments and the simple methods of playing them. 
• Also, as technology becomes more advanced with digital and mobile audio solutions, individuals can listen to complex sound recordings in total isolation, any time and anywhere. 
• Today people can choose to listen to a wide array of styles or to focus on one genre depending on the musical qualities that appeal to them as individuals. 
• Media, such as radio, TV and movies can influence pop culture’s tastes in music.

Does music affect society?  Or is our popular society shaped by the musical sounds that are directed our way and manage to reach our ears?  Are various evolving musical styles simply a continual expression of the subcultures that created them?

Music as a way to affect change in society

The emergence of folk music during the 20th century, and particularly the rise of popular folk music of the 1960’s, is probably the best example of music affecting society.  The Civil Rights Movement was in full swing and the largely unpopular war in Vietnam was well underway. 

Folk music is, inherently, music played and sung by and for everyday people—music for the masses, so to speak.  Naturally, when a culture becomes aware of radical changes that awareness gives way through expression.  Folk singer and songwriter Woody Guthrie began writing “protest music” and songs in support of popular movements of the day.  Other folk singers such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez followed suit. 

For the first time, music was not only a vehicle for expression, but it was also a way to mobilize and inspire listeners to think differently and take action.  The music typically embodied idealistic thinking, shunning capitalism and material comforts.  People in the US, particularly the youth, had showed a variety of favorable responses to this genre of music.  Shifting from the sterile, clean-cut popular image of the 1950’s, there was a general trend toward freedom, individuality and expression.  Generally speaking, ethnic, natural fabrics and hand woven or embroidered clothes became popular; the youth became more open about their experimentation with drugs and sex; there was an overall rejection of power structures and authority.  American society was changed drastically and in a lasting way.

US society since pop folk music

Since the tumultuous times of the 60’s and 70’s, pop folk music has faded out of the limelight. With more complex systems of mass communication, pop culture has become more informed by radio, television, movies and the Internet.  Furthermore, technology is paving the way for modern urban subcultures that have their own unique styles of music, expression and life philosophies.  Music still affects society today; only now, the influences occur in more complex, diverse, and at times subtle ways that are impossible to measure or define.

A monochord is a musical and scientific instrument dating back to ancient human history. Traditionally, it is simply a single string that is stretched over a sound box and fixed at either end with pegs. When the string is plucked, the side of the sound box that is in contact with the string pegs vibrates along with the string, thereby moving the air inside. This increases the amplitude of the tone produced before it is projected outward.

A moveable fret is often used to change the length of the portion of the string that is vibrating, and thereby change the frequency of the note being produced.

The monochord can be used to illustrate physical and mathematical properties of music; particularly the relationship of frequency and pitch. For example, when a monochord's string is open it will produce a given musical note. When the length of the string is halved, the string producing a note of twice the frequency of the original, sounding one octave higher. Half of this length will produce another octave higher, and so on.

If you ever feel like breaking into song, you should embrace it. It is said that singing in the car, shower or a karaoke night can make you feel good, and reduce feelings of pain.

Suzanne Hanser, chair of the music therapy department at Berklee College of Music says that "When we sing instead of speak, we have intonation, melody line, and crescendo, which gives us a broader vocabulary to express ourselves,"

Stress and pain

Studies have linked singing with a lower heart rate, decreased blood pressure, and reduced stress, according to Patricia Preston-Roberts, a board-certified music therapist in New York City. She uses song to help patients who suffer from a variety of psychological and physiological conditions.

"Some people who have been traumatized often want to leave the physical body, and using the voice helps ground them to their bodies," Preston-Roberts says. "Singing also seems to block a lot of the neural pathways that pain travels through."

Singing for seniors

Singing, particularly in a chorus, seems to benefit the elderly particularly well. As part of a three-year study examining how singing affects the health of those 55 and older, a Senior Singers Chorale was formed by the Levine School of Music in Washington, D.C.

The seniors involved in the chorale (as well as seniors involved in two separate arts groups involving writing and painting) showed significant health improvements compared to those in the control groups. Specifically, the arts groups reported an average of:

• 30 fewer doctor visits
• Fewer eyesight problems
• Less incidence of depression
• Less need for medication
• Fewer falls and other injuries

Even lead researcher Dr. Gene D. Cohen, director of the Center on Aging, Health, and Humanities at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., was surprised at how big of an effect the seniors' arts participation had on their health.

"My surprise was not a factor of whether the intervention would work, but how big an effect it would have at an advanced age," said Cohen. "The average age of all the subjects was 80. This is higher than life expectancy, so, realistically, if an effect were to be achieved, one would ordinarily expect to see less decline in the intervention group compared to the control. The fact that there was so much improvement in many areas was the surprise factor."

The seniors themselves also noticed health improvements, said Jeanne Kelly, director of the Levine School of Music, Arlington Campus, who led the choral group. The seniors reported:

• Feeling better both in daily life and while singing
• Their everyday voice quality was better
• The tone of their speaking voice did not seem to age as much
• Easier breathing
• Better posture

Singing boosts the immune system and well-being

Several studies have found that singing also enhances immunity and well-being. One, conducted at the University of Frankfurt in Germany, found that choral members had higher levels of immunoglobulin A and cortisol -- markers of enhanced immunity -- after they sang Mozart's "Requiem" than before. Just listening to the music did not have this effect.

In another study, members of a choir filled out questionnaires to report their physical and psychological reactions to singing. The choristers reported:

• Improved lung capacity
• High energy
• Relieved asthma
• Better posture
• Enhanced feelings of relaxation, mood and confidence

Singing and the arts becoming a widely accepted health tool

The arts are showing up as a treatment tool in hospitals across the country. In fact, a survey by the Society for the Arts in Healthcare (SAH), Americans for the Arts and the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations found that 68 percent of the hospitals surveyed incorporated some form of arts therapy into their treatment option.

"The arts helped the hospitals to humanize their facilities," said Naj Wikoff, president of SAH. "It's good community relations, and it improves the way the patients feel about their care -- it clearly increases customer satisfaction."

And, if you're thinking of volunteering, singing at a hospital may be a good choice -- not only for the patients but also for yourself.

"Hospitals are often glutted at holidays with people wanting to sing, but we need more people year round," Wikoff said.

The musical bow (also called Berimbau or Brimbau) is a simple string musical instrument consisting of a string supported by a flexible string bearer, usually made out of wood. Often, it is a normal archery bow used for music rather than as a weapon.

Although the bow is now thought of as a weapon, it is not clear whether it was used in this way originally. Cave paintings in southern France dated to around 15,000 BC, show a bow being used as a musical instrument, so this use certainly has a long history. Musical bows are still used in a number of cultures today, almost all over the world.

The usual way to make the bow sound is to pluck the string, although sometimes a subsidiary bow is used to scrape the string, much as on a violin. Unlike string instruments used in classical music, however, they do not have a built-in resonator, although resonators may be made to work with the bow in a number of ways.

The most usual type of resonator consists of a gourd attached to the back of the string bearer. The bow may also be stood in a pit or gourd on the ground, or one end of it may be partially placed in the mouth. This last method allows the size of the resonator to be varied as the instrument is played, thus allowing a melody to be heard consisting of the notes resonating in the player's mouth. As well as these various forms of resonators, the bow is frequently played without a resonator at all.

The musical bow is generally played on its own, as a solo instrument.

How to Play the Musical Bow

Hold the bow upright. The bow is held against your chest, to one side, by applying tension on the string. The String may be plucked with the finger, or tapped or stroked with the wooden plectrum. One may also play the string with a smaller bow. As you tap the string with the plectrum, or smaller bow, you fret (or note) the string with the finger of the other hand. You may want to employ a metal washer, paper clip, or other item to keep the wire from digging into your fingertip. Try fretting the string and tapping above and below that note. You will get two sounds. Do not strike the string hard, it is a gentle tap. Experiment with the way you tap and with different objects. Have Fun!

It can be challenging to let your partner know you love them when the two of you have different basic personality types: misunderstandings can occur. Extroverts can feel introverts’ need for distance as rejection. Introverts can think extroverts are smothering or intrusive.

So here is a handy little checklist of five ways to love your favorite introvert. Oh, and for all of you who love extroverts, there’s one for you, too! Find out how to express your love to an introvert (or an extrovert) in a way that she or he will understand, here:

How to love an introvert

Attention

Show an awareness and loyalty that she will not interpret as scrutiny or intrusion.

Acceptance

Validate her need for distance without taking it as rejection.

Affection

Let her give the signal for closeness of any kind.

Appreciation

Express gratitude for and recognition of kindness, and a willingness to accommodate you.

Allowing

Respect her need to be alone until she asks for time together.

How to love an extrovert

Attention

Take frequent notice of and an active interest in what she is doing.

Acceptance

Show that you are on her side and at her side.

Affection

Be frequently demonstrative--physically and verbally--of your love.

Appreciation

Make frequent mention and on special occasions a special mention of your recognition.

Allowing

Join her and share in her interests in some way as often as possible

Origin of the Oud
Description of the Oud
Tuning the Oud
Playing the Oud

Origin of the Oud

The Oud is a chordophone. Arabic legend claims the Oud to be a very long lived instrument with an illustrious history. These legends attribute the invention of the Oud, in the 3rd century, to Lamak, the grandson of the first man- Adam. Modern musical historians place the inception of the Oud much later.

The ancestors to the Oud may go back to Pharaonic Egypt. At that time the body was carved from a solid piece of wood. This Egyptian chordophone was called the Nefer. The Persian invaders brought this instrument home and renamed it the Barbet. This solid bodied chordophone continued its eastward expansion into what is modern day Russia, China and Japan. In the fifth century, Persians traveled westward to the Arabian Peninsula to help in the rebuilding of the Ka’ba in Mecca. They brought the Barbat with them. There it became known as an Oud. In Arabic, al ud means ‘the Wood.’ Referring to this instrument as ‘the Wood’ reflects its delicate construction.

The Oud underwent a number of changes during the Abbasid Caliphate, or Arab Golden Age. Reportable, the great Iraqi musician Zeriab was driven out of Baghdad and took the Oud with him to Spain. There, by the Moorish Period (711-1492), it finally evolved its characteristic stave body construction. At that time Spain was a great center of learning, science and art. It attracted influential persons from varied cultures. The music played on the Oud reflected the melding of the Greek, Persian, and Arabic cultures. The instrument and its sounds attracted the attention of eastern peoples in the area. Among the many Middle Eastern innovations brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders was the Oud. In Europe the Oud eventually evolved into the Troubadour’s Lute.

Description of the Oud

The Oud has a large pear-shaped soundboard. The soundboard has three ornately carved rosettes that function as sound-holes. The larger rosette is under the strings, while two smaller rosettes are above and below the strings. There are six courses of strings, with two strings per course. Traditionally the strings were plucked with a plectrum made of an eagle feather or of water buffalo horn.

The Strings are attached on the face of the soundboard and run over a fret-less neck. Traditionally Oud strings ran in four courses of two each. Latter a fifth course was added. Today it is common to see five courses of two stings and an additional single string. Tin order to more evenly distribute the stress of the strings they attach to tuning pegs from alternate sides of the peg-box. The peg box is attached to the neck at an acute angle and is almost the same length as the neck The neck is relatively short, less that half as long as the length of the soundboard.

Curving deeply behind the soundboard is the body of the Oud. The Body is constructed of interlocking bent boards. This style of construction is called stave construction. Often the staves are of alternating dark and light colored woods to add to the visual interest of the body.

Tuning the Oud

When the Arabic Oud had four courses of two strings each the tuning was CDGA or ADGC. When the fifth course was added it was usually tuned to G. The sixth course with the single string is usually tuned to D. So with six courses the tuning, low to high, is DGCDGA or DGADGC. Although it should not be implied that other tunings are incorrect. This instrument can be tuned differently for different styles of music. In general the Turkish Oud, which is slightly smaller, is tuned slightly higher. The difference in tuning is related to the vocal preferences of the different cultural groups. The DGADGC tuning is preferred by the Arabic and EABEAD preferred by the Turkish players.

Playing the Oud

Sit upright and cross your right leg over the left. Hold the neck in your left hand and rest the body on your right thigh. Your right arm should wrap around the base of the Oud so you hand comes to the soundboard. Do not drape your right arm over the top of the instrument. The soundboard should be vertical and not visible to the player. The right thigh and arm should support the Oud leaving the left arm and hand free to move along the neck. The fingers of the left hand note the strings on the neck. Some experiences players note the strings with their fingernail, and not the tip of the finger.

The Oud plectrum is not held the way you would hold a guitar pick. The guitar pick is held between the tip of the thumb and the tip edge of the index finger. The Oud pick is long and thin, reminiscent of the eagle’s quill. It is more flexible than the guitar pick. You can make your own pick from a number of objects including, cutup plastic bleach bottles or any number of other plastic objects. The thinner the plastic the more delicate the sound, thicker plastic provides a louder sound.

The Oud pick lies along the edge of the index finger, and protrudes beyond the end of the finger. The pad of the thumb, not the tip, then gently rests over the pick and holds it in place. When playing, the thumb will be parallel to the soundboard and your index finger will point at the strings. The motion of playing is then with the wrist not the forearm. Practice keeping your fingers, hand and arm as relaxed as possible.

Mnemonic devices should probably not be used for memorizing concepts because they are designed to sidestep the deep meaning of a given material. For this reason, these techniques are excellent for remembering lists and necessary facts.

2 keys to memory

Repetition and association are two essential components to any memory technique.

Repetition

Mnemonic devices demand active participation and a constant repetition of the material to be memorized. This repetition is not passively repeating words, but instead it is meaningful practice which involves familiarizing yourself with a list, trying to memorize it, duplicating it, and then checking it yourself. This process acts as a holding pattern while links are found to retain the information permanently.

Association

New knowledge is more effectively stored in the long term memory when it is associated with anything that is familiar. Mnemonic focus on association and with a little creativity, your associations will be so bizarre that you can't help but remember them.

Some mnemonic devices

There are many mnemonic devices from which to choose; some very simple, and some very complex. Here are some examples of each:

Rhyme

If you think about it, you can probably remember rhymes from clear back in grade school: nursery rhymes, spelling rhymes etc.

Example:

Sentence

Acronym

Grouping

When you have a lot of material to be memorized, break it down into small subgroups. These subgroups should be divided into meaningful parts. If the groups are complete ideas, you'll remember them better.

Example:

If you need to memorize a Bible verse like Hebrews 4:12, "For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart," try breaking it up into meaningful parts.

For the word of God is living and active
and sharper than any two-edged sword,
and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit of both joints and marrow
and able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart.

The crwth is a stringed musical instrument, a type of medieval bowed lyre associated particularly with Wales, although played more widely in Europe.

The instrument went out of fashion in Wales by about the 17th century (largely supplanted by the more versatile violin), and earlier elsewhere. There are three extant original Welsh instruments (currently in museums in Cardiff, Aberystwyth and Warrington), and numerous carvings, manuscript illustrations and written descriptions of the crwth.

The crwth consists of a fairly simple box construction with a flat, fretless fingerboard and six gut strings, usually tuned GgDdCc. The G strings run parallel to the fingerboard, but not over it, so these are used as drones, either plucked or bowed. The remaining strings are usually bowed with a short horsehair and wood bow. Due to the limited compass, the tuning and the flat bridge, the instrument is harmonically limited but is capable of producing a remarkably full, rich sound nonetheless. One characteristic feature of the crwth bridge is that one side of it goes through a soundhole and rests on the back of the instrument. Although it has been conjectured that this is a primitive attempt at a soundpost (which the instrument lacks), it is more likely that it is designed to take some of the weight of the strings off the belly of the instrument (since this is flat and unbraced, it is much weaker than the belly of a violin).

The tuning referred to above is mentioned in several manuscript sources of information about the crwth and is believed to have been the standard tuning for the instrument. It is, however, likely that different tunings would have been employed, as was and still is the case with many other stringed instruments.

A small number of modern reconstructions of the crwth have been made and there are a handful of musicians reviving the tradition of playing this instrument. The repertoire of surviving crwth tunes is very small, although many other traditional tunes can be adapted for the instrument and new tunes are being written for it.

Some couples may disagree, but romantic love lasts little more than a year, Italian scientists believe.

The University of Pavia found a brain chemical was likely to be responsible for the first flush of love.

Researchers said raised levels of a protein was linked to feelings of euphoria and dependence experienced at the start of a relationship.

But after studying people in long and short relationships and single people, they found the levels receded in time.

The team analysed alterations in proteins known as neurotrophins in the bloodstreams of men and women aged 18 to 31, the Psychoneuroendocrinology journal reported.

They looked at 58 people who had recently started a relationship and compared the protein levels in the same number of people in long-term relationships and single people.

In those who had just started a relationship, levels of a protein called nerve growth factors, which causes tell-tale signs such as sweaty palms and the butterflies, were significantly higher.

Of the 39 people who were still in the same new relationship after a year, the levels of NGF had been reduced to normal levels.

Report co-author Piergluigi Politi said the findings did not mean people were no longer in love, just that it was not such an "acute love".

Stable

"The love became more stable. Romantic love seemed to have ended."

And he added the report suggested the change in love was down to NGF.

"Our current knowledge of the neurobiology of romantic love remains scanty.

"But it seems from this study biochemical mechanisms could be involved in the mood changes that occur from the early stage of love to when the relationship becomes more established."

However, he said further research was needed.

Dr Lance Workman, head of psychology at Bath Spa University, said: "Research has suggested that romantic love fades after a few years and becomes companionate love and it seems certain biological factors play a role.

"But while we are a pair-bonding species, there is some doubt over whether this is within monogamous relationships or not.

"Different societies have different practices and trends."

The violin (or fiddle when used in the context of folk music) is a stringed musical instrument comprising 4 strings, each tuned a fifth apart from each other. It is the smallest and highest-tuned member of the violin family of string instruments which also includes the viola, cello and double bass. The lowest string is a G just below middle C, then D, A and E (in that order). Occasionally other tunings are employed (for example, tuning the G string up to A) both in classical music (where the technique is known as scordatura) and in some folk styles.

Sheet music for a violin almost always uses a G clef (or treble clef). The lowest attainable note using normal tuning is the G just below middle C.

The violin has some similarities to the earlier viol family of instruments.

A person who plays violin is called a violinist.

Positions

The highest note apparently available on a violin is the little finger pressed down on the E-string (sounding a B). However this is only the highest note in first position. A higher note can be achieved by sliding the hand up the neck of the violin and presssing the fingers down at this new position. In 1st position, the first finger on the E string gives an F or F#. Pressing the first finger on a G is called going in to second position. Third position is achieved when the first finger presses down on an A, and so on. The upper limit of the violin's range is largely determined by the skill of the player, and a good player could easily get more than 2 octaves out of each string. Violinists often change positions on the lower strings even though this seems unnecessary. This is done to produce a particular timbre or to handle a piece which would otherwise require fast switching of strings.

Double-stopping

Double stopping is playing two strings simultaneously, producing a chord. This is much harder than normal single-string playing as more than one finger has to be coordinated on to different strings simultaneously. Sometimes going in to higher positions is necessary in order for it to be physically possible for the fingers to be placed in the correct places. Double stopping is also used to mean playing on three or all four strings at once, although such practices are more properly called triple or quadruple stopping. Collectively, double, triple and quadruple stopping is called multiple stopping.

The style of bow used until around the end of the 18th century, particularly in Germany, had the wood curved outwards, which made it somewhat easier to play three notes at the same time. However, most treatises written around the time make it clear that composers did not expect three notes to be played at once, even though the notes may be written in a way as to suggest this, and playing four notes at once is almost impossible even with older bows. The normal way of playing three or four note chords is to briefly sound the lower notes and allow them to ring while the bow plays the upper notes. This gives the illusion of a true triple or quadruple stop.

A twentieth century invention by Emil Telmányi called the Bach bow makes use of a system of levers to temporarily slacken the bow hair and allow sustained three or four note chords; this design has no historical precedent and is less authentic than an ordinary modern bow for playing baroque (or any other) music.

As well as the style of bow, the curvature of the bridge (over which the violin strings are stretched) is an important factor in the ease of multiple stopping. On most classical instruments, the bridge is curved enough to make it difficult to play three strings at once, but on some fiddles the bridge is shaved down until almost flat, making it far easier to triple stop, as well as to alternate double stopping on different pairs of strings (D-A to A-E for example).

Emotional devices

Vibrato is a very common device used by violinists, which causes the pitch of a note to vary up and down quickly. This is achieved by moving the finger pressing on the string slightly forwards and backwards. Vibrato is often perceived to add much emotion to a piece. A useful side effect is that it can disguise an out of tune note. There are, in fact, several different styles of vibrato ranging from the use of just the fingers, to the use of the wrist or even the whole forearm. These produce different effects and are favoured by different players for different styles of music. Some styles of music use little or no vibrato at all.

Pressing the finger very lightly on the string can create harmonics. This means that instead of the normal solid tone a wispy-sounding note of a higher pitch is heard. This is caused by the light finger blocking the string's fundamental; the position of the finger determines the first note of that string's harmonic series which is allowed to sound.

The tone of the violin can also be altered by attaching a small device called a mute to the bridge of the instrument. This stops the bridge itself from vibrating so much, and causes a more mellow tone, with fewer audible harmonics above the note being played.

Another way to vary the tone of the instrument is to move the bow nearer to or further away from the bridge. Playing up close to the bridge (sul ponticello) gives a thinner, harsher sound than usual, and playing with the bow over the end of the fingerboard (sul tasto) makes for a delicate, ethereal sound.

Occasionally the strings are struck with the back of the bow (col legno). This gives a much more percussive sound, and is most effective when a whole violin section is playing that way, since it is difficult to get much volume with this technique.

A second, more modern percussive technique is called the "chop," in which the hair near the bottom of the bow is struck against the strings. It is used by some jazz musicians, including the Turtle Island String Quartet.

Maintenance

Violins are tuned by twisting the pegs present in the head of a violin. The A-string is tuned first, typically to 440 Hz (see Pitch (music)). The other strings are then tuned in comparison to it in intervals of perfect fifths using double-stopping. Some violins also have adjustors (or fine tuners). These can adjust the tension of the string and are positioned behind the bridge. These are more convenient when a not a lot of adjustment is necessary. They are also much easier to use, as the pegs in the head have the nasty habit of slipping, and need to be set in a turning and pushing method. Adjustors are recommended for younger players. Small tuning adjustments can also be made by stretching a string. Adjustors work best, and are most useful, with higher tension metal strings. It is very common to use one on the E-string even if the others are not equipped with them.

Strings are usually replaced after about a year or when they break. The cost of strings can vary very widely, and the quality of strings can have a big impact on the timbre of the sound produced. Strings made of gut, which are often used in historically accurate performances of music from the 18th century and earlier, have a tendency to go out of tune and snap more easily than modern strings made from metal. Synthetic cored strings (wound with metal) are a convenient modern alternative, which combine some of the benefits of gut strings with greater longevity and tuning stability.

It is said that Paganini purposefully weakened some of his strings so that in performance they would snap. He would then play the rest of the piece on the remaining strings, sometimes going into remarkably high positions in order to impress the audience.

The hair of the bow is traditionally made out of horse-hair, although many cheaper instruments are made from synthetic material. It has to be frequently rubbed with rosin so it can gain enough grip on the metal strings of the violin. In the course of playing the violin, hairs are often lost from the bow, making it necessary to have it rehaired periodically.

Violins typically make up the bulk of an orchestra, and are usually divided into two sections, known as the first and second violins. First violin parts tend towards the melody, while second violins tend to play harmony.

The term ‘baroque’ was first coined to describe the architectural style of 17th and 18th century religious buildings in many parts of Europe. It wasn’t until the 1900s that the word ‘baroque’ was applied to musical composition. Today, the term refers to a specific musical genre which originated in the 1600s and reached its peak in the early to mid 1700s.

So what exactly is baroque music? It is a style intended primarily to invoke a particular emotional mood in the listener. The intended mood can vary from piece to piece but is generally consistent within the piece – for example, Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus, perhaps the most well-known example of baroque music, was written to create a mood of joy and celebration in the listener. The ideal Baroque style can be summed up in the words of composer Johann Joseph Fux.

“A composition meets the demands of good taste if it is well constructed, avoids trivialities as well as willful eccentricities, aims at the sublime, but moves in a natural ordered way, combining brilliant ideas with perfect workmanship.”

Baroque music often contains a feeling of continuity, achieved by repeating a musical “theme” throughout the piece. These compositions tend to be extremely intricate and are frequently not easy to play or sing. The dynamics of baroque music tend to shift abruptly within a piece, rarely using gradual changes such as crescendos. This is probably due to the limitations of the musical instruments at the time – keyboard instruments such as harpsichords were unable to create subtle changes in volume, so the composer had the choice of piano (soft) or forte (loud) but not gradual transitions between the two. The development of the orchestra also influenced this characteristic, since the composer could now induce abrupt changes in tone and volume by adding and removing instruments.

Baroque had a tremendous influence on musical evolution. Some of the world’s most cherished composers wrote during this era – Bach, Vivaldi, Gluck, Hendel and dozens more. Opera was invented during the Baroque era and still bears the fingerprints of the style, with its elaborate harmonies and emotional appeal. The baroque era also represents the beginning of a shift in emphasis from religious to secular music. Perhaps for this reason, during the Classical Era (from roughly 1730-1820) most religious music was written in the Baroque style, while secular music was developed using the new techniques. For example, Mozart’s oratorios and masses are distinctly Baroque in their harmonic style, while his secular compositions generally are not.

Baroque music was also the distant ancestor of jazz. Not only were most Baroque pieces written for small ensembles similar to a jazz quartet, they also required a level of improvisation by the performers. Many compositions employed a method known as ‘Figured Bass,’ which is a way for pianists to improvise a bass line to support the pre-written chords – and as a result, performances of the same piece of Baroque music could vary greatly from day to day. 

In many ways, the Baroque era was the “Great Enlightment” of music – the time of discovery and exploration when the musical world exploded with ideas and insights. An understanding of this time is critical to understanding music as a whole.

Gudok is an ancient Russian string musical instrument, which was played with a bow. Gudok usually has 3 strings: 2 of them were tuned in unison and the 3d - one fifth higher. All 3 strings were placed in the same plane, so a bow could make them all sound simultaneously (not like in violin, where only 2 strings can be reached at any momement). Sometimes it has also several several (up to 8) resonant strings under the upper sounding board. These made gudok's sound warm and rich. When playing gudok an artist held it on it's lap like a cello or viola da gamba. Initially (in 12th century and probably before) gudok was played using harmonics only, without pressing strings to instrument's neck. Later (in 14th century and after) some modifications of gudok had a real neck for pressing strings, but this wasn't very useful because of specific instrument's shape and was an obvious borrowing from fiddles.

Now gudoks are entirely ceased away for several centures already. Nobody really plays them and only in museums you can see some reconstructions. Gudok always have been a folk, skomorokh instrument, so very few of them remains to our time.

There were several attempts to revive gudoks in music. In Borodin's opera Prince Igor there's a 'Gudok Players Song', which is an authour's reconstruction of how gudok may have sounded. But in practice it's performed with modern violins and altos of course.

Nowadays some folk Russian groups try to make their playalble gudok reconstructions and to use them on their performances.

Imagine building up a collection of the great singers and groups of the "Swingin' Sixties", cheaply and economically - savings money in the process!

This process is simply about selecting the best collections in the market, and choosing the best sources - in the high street or on-line, so that you get the best possible product, at the best possible price!

Tips to ensure you get the best there is for the least outlay:

1. Don't get sucked in to the latest marketing programme. With Christmas coming up, this is doubly important, because this is the time when ridiculous sums of money are asked for, for compilations that have been on the market for years - at much lower sums. Ignore ALL such promotions, and use the tips in this article!
2. Consider buying second hand. I know there is a delight in unwrapping the cellophane of a new purchase. Actually, that is the one thing I DETEST about buying new, as I can never get the wretched wrapping off, without the aid of a sharp knife or scissors, when I often scratch the CD case in frustration. As soon as you play your DC or DVD, it is officially second hand, so what have you gained. I have only once found a second hand product to be even slightly faulty, and on e-bay you will almost certainly be able to get a refund.
3. Take care to look at the small print on the cover of a CD. IGNORE all CDs with the words "tracks by original artistes, although some may have been re-recorded featuring some or all of the original artistes. You may get some tracks as originals, or even a version that is superior in many ways to the original. But don't bank on it. If you can get it for $1.00 or a couple of dollars, you may want to take the chance. But better not!
4. Use ebay to search for the best compilation of tracks of your chosen artiste. For sixties artistes, it is relatively common to acquire a "best of" CD featuring 20, 30, 40, even 50 original tracks on a single CD or CD box set.
5. Even better, choose a CD compilation with a clear theme. This could be all the EP tracks, or all the "A" and "B" singles over a given period. This ensures that there is no fillers of dubious quality tracks to pad out the CD.
6. Compare prices on ebay with Amazon. It can be amazing how much prices can vary for the same product - either new or second hand, between the two sites. Sometimes Amazon is best option - especially as there is no bidding involved, and sometimes ebay wins hands down.
7. Use Amazon to check out the quality of the compilation. Reviewers will give hard hitting honest appraisal of the CD or DVD, identifying those dodgy re-recorded tracks mentioned above, or where the tracks are not representative of an artiste's best work.
8. If bidding on ebay, bid low and late. You can get an idea of the average price by going to "completed listings", but I prefer to wade right in. Once I have identified a great product, I assess my top total price (including postage and packing!), then make my bid about 24 hours before the end date at about half my target. I log in again about half an hour before the end of auction, and get ready to make a late (and final) bid. Don't exceed you top bid. There will be another one along tomorrow!
9. And for special individual tracks, why not use the Internet to download songs as MP3 tracks!

The viola is a stringed musical instrument which is part of the violin family. In this family it serves as the middle voice, between the upper lines played by the violin and the lower lines played by the cello and double_bass.

The viola is approximately 2 inches longer than the violin (and wider proportionally), though there is greater variation in the size of the viola than that of the violin. Compared to the violin, the viola has a more resonant and mellower sound, especially in the lower registers. The viola is held horizontally beneath the chin and played in much the same way as the violin.

The viola reads music in the alto clef, and has 4 strings tuned in fifths: the C an octave below middle C is the lowest, with G, D and A above it - these are tuned exactly one fifth below the violin, and so one octave above the cello.

Use of the viola is almost completely limited to classical music, and even in that field it is not nearly so popular an instrument for solo pieces and sonatas as its cousins the violin and the cello. In orchestral music the viola part is frequently limited to the filling in of harmonies with little melodic material assigned to it. There are also very few viola concertos compared to the violin or cello. A rare example of a piece written before the 20th century which features a solo viola part is Hector Berlioz's Harold In Italy, though there are also a few Baroque and Classical concerti, for example those by Telemann and Carl Stamitz respectively.

In the 20th century, more composers began to write for the viola, encouraged by the emergence of specialised solo violists such as Lionel Tertis. William Walton and Bela Bartok have both written well-known viola concertos. One of the few composers to write a substantial amount of music for the viola was Paul Hindemith, who was a violist himself. Rebecca Clarke is a 20th century composer who wrote almost exclusively for the viola. However, the amount of music in the viola repertoire remains quite small, and violists often play arrangements of other pieces.

As could be expected, the viola also sees little use in popular music. It was sometimes part of popular dance orchestras in the period from about 1890 to 1930, and orchestrations of pop tunes from that era often had viola parts available. The viola largely disappeared from pop music with the changes of dance band orchestrations at the start of the big band era.

Many of the most memorable advertising campaigns around tend to be funny. Advertisers use this strategy to attract customers to their product. Audiences like to be entertained, but not pitched. People will pay more attention to a humorous commercial than a factual or serious one, opening themselves up to be influenced. The key to funny advertising is assuring the humour is appropriate to both product and customer. The balance between funny and obnoxious can often be delicate; and a marketer must be certain the positive effects outweigh the negative before an advertisement can be introduced.

The best products to sell using humour tend to be those that consumers have to think the least about. Products that are relatively inexpensive, and often consumable, can be represented without providing a lot of facts, and that's where there's room for humour. Candy, food, alcohol, tobacco and toys/entertainment related products have proven to benefit the most from humour in their campaigns. One of the most important things to keep in mind is relevance to the product. An example of an extremely successful humorous campaign is the series of "Yo Quiero Taco Bell" commercials. The star, a tiny talking Chihuahua who is passionate about his Taco Bell got people repeating the company's name across the country. The repetition of the company name and the actual content of the commercial reinforce the message in a relevant manner. Taco Bell saw a substantial rise in sales and their own mascot became a pop icon.

Another point to consider when using humor in advertising is that different things are funny to different people. A commercial that may leave one person gripping their sides from laughter may leave a bad taste in another's mouth. The target market must always be considered. What's funny in a client presentation may not be funny on an air plane, at a country club or in a hospital. An example of a recent humorous product introduction is Mike's Hard Lemonade. These commercials feature over exaggerated and comical violence with the underlining message that no one's day is hard enough to pass up a Mike's. It failed, ranking as one of the year's most hated campaigns by both men and woman according to 2002's Ad Track, a consumer survey. The series of commercials are aimed at 21-29 year old males and the repetition of comical violence (such as a construction worker being impaled on the job and a lumberjack cutting off his own foot) gets less and less funny every time it's viewed. Eventually the joke just wore out and the commercial became annoying and offensive.

The Sarod is the second most popular string instrument originating from North India. Only the sitar is more popular.

Originally the main use of the the Sarod was as a solo instrument though modern times have seen it a greater role in the composition of modern Indian orchestras. This is because its deep, rich tone blends easily with other instruments.

One of the closest related instruments to the Sarod is the Rabab, one of the popular instruments in the Middle East.

Sarods can be from 3 to 3 and a half feet long and are made from wood. The larger end of the body is rounded, has a diameter of nearly half a foot and is covered with parchment. The round part gradually tappers off to the neck. Sarods have 6 main metallic strings including the side strings used for the drone and rhythmic accompaniment. These strings are secured to pegs at the smaller end of the Sarod. Some varieties have a small gourd attached to the neck end. It has 11 or 12 sympathetic strings which improve the resonance. A polished metal plate covers the finger-board to help the fingers slide.

To play the Sarod, a plectrum is used in the right hand leaving the left hand free to stop the strings and play the notes.

Knowing how to choose the right guitar and how to identify a bad one, will save you from countless headaches, not to mention finger aches.

Acoustic guitar bodies come in basically the same hourglass shape, with some variations, but they do vary in size, colour,wood-type, style, and extra features. You can even buy an acoustic guitar so small that fits into a hiking backpack.

Guitars come in a very wide range of prices, but when it comes to instruments, in general, you get what you pay for, especially when you buy new. There's a real difference between getting a bargain on a site like eBay and buying cheap.

But whether you buy new or used may be determined by many personal factors including your budget, and each has their own pros and cons.

Buying new, gives you a warranty and, hopefully, a return period,if for some reason you're not totally satisfied with your purchase, or something goes wrong.

Under 'usual' circumstances, a used guitar can usually be purchased cheaper and has already gone through its "break-in"period.

Commercially built guitars are usually mass manufactured."Custom-made" guitars are exactly that. They are custom built and tailored to your specifications by a highly skilled guitar maker.

Prices for a custom-built guitar vary considerably, depending on the skill level of the crafts person you contract the job to, but,as a rule, they are generally quite higher than a commercially built guitar of "similar" quality. Each custom built guitar is unique and therefore hard to compare in price to a commercially built guitar.

For the "Techies"

Understanding some of the parts of a guitar will definitely help you when it comes to the Pre-Purchase Check-list.

Body

This is the part with the sound hole in the front. It is where the strumming is done, and it can vary in size. The actual size, shape, type of wood, coating, and general build of the body also affects how the guitar will "sound", whether it's a rich and warm sound, or a thin and 'twangy' sound. The body tends to be the part that also gets scratched, damaged, and generally banged-up the most.

Neck

This is the long piece extending from the body and ends at the 'head' of the guitar where the 'Tuning Heads' are, also known as 'machine heads'. The strings travel from the 'Bridge' on the body, across the sound hole, along the 'Fret Board', which is attached to the front-side of the neck, and finally arriving at the tuning heads where they are wrapped around tuning posts. The tuning heads are then turned by hand, which then turns the posts,making the strings tighter or looser, thus affecting their 'tuning'. Necks tend to warp and twist if not looked after, or if the guitar is left propped against a heat source.

Bridge

The Bridge is normally located on the front of the body,by the sound hole, and on the side of the hole opposite to the neck. The strings are usually fed through the bridge first before they cross the hole and travel up the neck to the tuning heads.The bridge is like an anchor-point for the strings. Metal bridges are best, but on most acoustics they are either hard plastic or wood. Bridges have a tendency to crack and split over a long period of time.

Fret board

The fret board is glued to the front of the neck.This is the part you press the strings onto to make chords or play individual notes. Because it's glued on separately, a fretboard can be made of a wood that's different from the neck.

The strings travel over the fret board and the distance they are above the fret board makes a difference to the playability of the guitar. If the strings are too far above the fret board, then they will be hard to press down, making the guitar hard to play.

When a beginner plays a guitar, initially his or her fingertips are very soft and need to be hardened. A guitar with the strings too far above the fret board, also known as having a 'high action', will cause the player's fingers to hurt so much that they are likely to put the guitar away in discouragement and possibly stop playing altogether.

Strings

Acoustic guitar strings, come in a wide variety of 'flavors'. They can be made out of nylon, brass, steel, or a combination. Nylon strings are usually only found on Classical guitars and Student guitars, because they're easier on the fingertips. They have a rich, warm sound to them.

Strings sets come in different 'weights', or sizes. Strings that come from a package marked 'Heavy' are usually quite thick in size and sound "beefy". Strings that are light, or extra light,are very thin and usually have a brighter sound to them, but are also quieter sounding than heavy strings.

String choices are purely personal taste. Light strings are easier to press than heavy strings but also sound quite different. The more often strings are played, the dirtier they get. If a cloth isn't run over and under them, from time to time,the sound becomes very dull

Pre-purchase check list

• Before you buy a used guitar, cost compare against the price of a new one, unless the guitar is quite old. You could also compare its used price to other used prices by going to an online auction and either searching for the same or a similar guitar.
• Check the overall condition of the wood for cracks, scratches, splits, dents, chips, etc.
• Also check the lacquer finish for cracks and splits.
• Check the neck/fret board for warping and twisting. You can do this by holding the guitar flat on its back, with the sound hole facing upward. Bring the guitar up to eye
• level, with the neck running away from you and the edge of the body almost touching your face. Let your eye-sight skim across the front of the body and down the fret board. You should be able to see if the neck is twisted or bowing.
• Tune the guitar, or have the seller tune it for you.
• If you know how to play about five or six chords then play them. If you don't know how to play, ask the seller to play them for you. This check ensures that the neck of the guitar is not warped, even though you couldn't physically see it. If the neck is warped, and the guitar is properly tuned, then some of the chords will sound good, but others will sound as though the guitar is not tuned. If this happens, check the tuning again. If it persists, then don't buy the guitar.
• Check the bridge of the guitar. If it's made out of wood or plastic, make sure it's not cracked or splitting. The bridge needs to be rock solid, as a lot of pressure is exerted on the bridge by the strings.
• Check the tuning heads. Do they turn easily, or are they very stiff and hard to turn. Even with the high tension of the strings, a quality guitar will have tuning heads that are fairly easy to turn.
• Check the 'action' of the guitar. Are the strings a fair distance from the fret board? Are they easy or hard to press down at various points on the fret board?
• If you are buying the guitar for yourself, and you know how to play, even if you're a beginner, then play the guitar.
• How does it feel?
• Is it easy or hard to play?
• Can you fit your hand around the neck/fret board comfortably to play chords?
• Is the guitar a comfortable size and shape for your body? Is it easy to hold?
• If you plan to play standing up, ask for a guitar strap.
• Do you like the sound, the colour, etc?
• If you don't play,have someone else play it for you so that you can judge what it sounds like.

Where to buy?

Buying a guitar from a physical retail music store allows you to 'test drive' the guitar and ask more questions up front. Buying online from a site like eBay or a catalogue may bring you more cash savings.

No matter where you buy your guitar, if you know what to look for, and spend a little extra effort in your search for that 'perfect' guitar, not only will your fingers thank you, but also your ears, and all those who will come to join you around the campfire, or even go to see you in concert.